Editing Noise pollution (section)

===Wildlife===
Noise generated by traffic, ships, vehicles, and aircraft can affect the survivability of wildlife species and can reach undisturbed habitats.<ref name="Sordello-2019">{{Cite journal |vauthors=Sordello R, De Lachapelle FF, Livoreil B, Vanpeene S |date=2019 |title=Evidence of the environmental impact of noise pollution on biodiversity: a systematic map protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=8 |doi=10.1186/s13750-019-0146-6 |bibcode=2019EnvEv...8....8S |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although sounds are commonly present in the environment, anthropogenic noises are distinguishable due to differences in frequency and amplitude.<ref name="Francis-2009">{{cite journal |vauthors=Francis CD, Ortega CP, Cruz A |date=August 2009 |title=Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions |journal=Current Biology |volume=19 |issue=16 |pages=1415–9 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052 |pmid=19631542 |s2cid=15985432 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2009CBio...19.1415F }}</ref> Many animals use sounds to communicate with others of their species, whether that is for reproduction purposes, navigation, or to notify others of prey or predators. However, anthropogenic noises inhibit species from detecting these sounds, affecting overall communication within the population.<ref name="Francis-2009" /> Species such as birds, amphibians, reptiles, fishes, mammals, and invertebrates are examples of biological groups that are impacted by noise pollution.<ref name="Sordello-2019" /><ref name="Kunc-2019">{{cite journal |vauthors=Kunc HP, Schmidt R |date=November 2019 |title=The effects of anthropogenic noise on animals: a meta-analysis |journal=Biology Letters |volume=15 |issue=11 |pages=20190649 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2019.0649 |pmc=6892517 |pmid=31744413}}</ref> If animals cannot communicate with one another, this would result in reproduction to decline (not able to find mates), and higher mortality (lack of communication for predator detection).<ref name="Sordello-2019" /> The study of these relationships between acoustic organisms, the acoustic environment, and resulting impacts is known as [[soundscape ecology]] or [[acoustic ecology]]. 

[[European robin]]s living in urban environments are more likely to sing at night in places with high levels of noise pollution during the day, suggesting that they sing at night because it is quieter, and their message can propagate through the environment more clearly.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Fuller RA, Warren PH, Gaston KJ | title = Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 368–370 | date = August 2007 | pmid = 17456449 | pmc = 2390663 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134 }}</ref> The same study showed that daytime noise was a stronger predictor of nocturnal singing than night-time [[light pollution]], to which the phenomenon often is attributed. Anthropogenic noise reduced the species richness of birds found in Neotropical urban parks.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors=Perillo A, Mazzoni LG, Passos LF, Goulart VD, Duca C, Young RJ| year=2017| title=Anthropogenic noise reduces bird species richness and diversity in urban parks| journal=Ibis| volume=159| pages=638–646| doi=10.1111/ibi.12481| issue=3| s2cid=89816734| url=http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/10497/3/Anthropogenic%20noise%20reduces%20bird%20species%20richness%20and%20diversity%20in%20urban%20parks.pdf| access-date=2019-09-24| archive-date=2019-04-28| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428182041/http://researchonline.ljmu.ac.uk/10497/3/Anthropogenic%20noise%20reduces%20bird%20species%20richness%20and%20diversity%20in%20urban%20parks.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Zebra finch]]es become less faithful to their partners when exposed to traffic noise. This could alter a population's evolutionary trajectory by selecting traits, sapping resources normally devoted to other activities and thus leading to profound genetic and evolutionary consequences.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Milius |first1=Susan |title=High volume, low fidelity: Birds are less faithful as sounds blare |journal=Science News |date=30 September 2009 |volume=172 |issue=8 |pages=116 |doi=10.1002/scin.2007.5591720804 }}</ref>

====Why invertebrates are affected====
Several reasons have been identified relating to hypersensitivity in invertebrates when exposed to [[Soundscape ecology#Anthropophony and insects|anthropogenic noise]]. Invertebrates have evolved to pick up sound, and a large portion of their physiology is adapted for the purpose of detecting environmental vibrations.<ref name="Morley_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Morley EL, Jones G, Radford AN | title = The importance of invertebrates when considering the impacts of anthropogenic noise | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 281 | issue = 1776 | pages = 20132683 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24335986 | pmc = 3871318 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2013.2683 }}</ref> Antennae or hairs on the organism pick up particle motion.<ref name="Nedelec_2016">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nedelec SL, Campbell J, Radford AN, Simpson SD, Merchant ND | title = Particle motion: the missing link in underwater acoustic ecology. | journal = Methods in Ecology and Evolution | date = July 2016 | volume = 7 | issue = 7 | pages = 836–42 | doi = 10.1111/2041-210x.12544 | bibcode = 2016MEcEv...7..836N | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/30438 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Anthropogenic noise created in the marine environment, such as pile driving and shipping, are picked up through particle motion; these activities exemplify near-field stimuli.<ref name="Nedelec_2016" />

The ability to detect vibration through mechanosensory structures is most important in invertebrates and fish. Mammals, also, depend on pressure detector ears to perceive the noise around them.<ref name="Nedelec_2016" /> Therefore, it is suggested that marine invertebrates are likely perceiving the effects of noise differently than marine mammals. It is reported that invertebrates can detect a large range of sounds, but noise sensitivity varies substantially between each species. Generally, however, invertebrates depend on frequencies under 10&nbsp;kHz. This is the frequency at which a great deal of ocean noise occurs.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Hallander J, Lee D | year = 2015 | title = Shipping and Underwater Radiated Noise. | work = SSPA Highlights | publisher = SSPA Sweden AB | url = https://www.sspa.se/shipping-and-underwater-radiated-noise | access-date = 2020-05-13 | archive-date = 2020-08-03 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200803090545/https://www.sspa.se/shipping-and-underwater-radiated-noise | url-status = live }}</ref>

Therefore, not only does anthropogenic noise often mask invertebrate communication, but it also negatively impacts other biological system functions through noise-induced stress.<ref name="Morley_2014" />
Another one of the leading causes of noise effects in invertebrates is because sound is used in multiple behavioral contexts by many groups. This includes regularly sound produced or perceived in the context of aggression or predator avoidance. Invertebrates also utilize sound to attract or locate mates, and often employ sound in the courtship process.<ref name="Morley_2014" />

====Stress recorded in physiological and behavioral responses====
[[File:20220623 Noise pollution. Tomaszów Mazowiecki (60,000 population town), residential area.oga|thumb|An exaggerated sound from machines used for the care of greenery. A four-story apartments complex area in [[Tomaszów Mazowiecki]], Poland ]]
Many of the studies that were conducted on invertebrate exposure to noise found that a physiological or behavioral response was triggered. Most of the time, this related to stress, and provided concrete evidence that marine invertebrates detect and respond to noise. Some of the most informative studies in this category focus on [[Hermit crab|hermit crabs]]. In one study, it was found that the behavior of the hermit crab ''[[Pagurus bernhardus]]'', when attempting to choose a shell, was modified when subjected to noise.<ref name="Walsh_2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh EP, Arnott G, Kunc HP | title = Noise affects resource assessment in an invertebrate | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | page = 20170098 | date = April 2017 | pmid = 28404823 | pmc = 5414699 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2017.0098 }}</ref>

Proper selection of hermit crab shells strongly contributes to their ability to survive. Shells offer protection against predators, high salinity and desiccation.<ref name="Walsh_2017" /> However, researchers determined that approach to shell, investigation of shell, and habitation of shell, occurred over a shorter time duration with anthropogenic noise as a factor. This indicated that assessment and decision-making processes of the hermit crab were both altered, even though hermit crabs are not known to evaluate shells using any auditory or mechanoreception mechanisms.<ref name="Walsh_2017" />

In another study that focused on ''Pagurus bernhardus'' and the [[blue mussel]] (''Mytilus edulis''), physical behaviors exhibited a stress response to noise. When the hermit crab and mussel were exposed to different types of noise, significant variation in the valve gape occurred in the blue mussel.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020">{{cite conference | vauthors = Breithaupt T, Elliott M, Roberts L, Simpson S, Bruintjes R, Harding H, Radford A, Voellmy IK, Harding HR, Voellmy I, Simpson SD | title = Exposure of benthic invertebrates to sediment vibration: From laboratory experiments to outdoor simulated pile-driving. | series = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics | conference = Proceedings of Meetings on Acoustics | date = April 2020 | volume = 27 | issue = 1 | page = 010029 | publisher = Acoustical Society of America | doi = 10.1121/2.0000324 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10871/30440 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> The hermit crab responded to the noise by lifting the shell off of the ground multiple times, then vacating the shell to examine it before returning inside.<ref name="Breithaupt_2020" /> The results from the hermit crab trials were ambiguous with respect to causation; more studies must be conducted in order to determine whether the behavior of the hermit crab can be attributed to the noise produced.

Another study that demonstrates a stress response in invertebrates was conducted on the [[longfin inshore squid]] (''Doryteuthis pealeii''). The squid was exposed to sounds of construction known as pile driving, which impacts the sea bed directly and produces intense substrate-borne and water-borne vibrations.<ref name="Roberts_2017" /> The squid reacted by jetting, inking, pattern change and other startle responses.<ref name="Jones_2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones IT, Stanley JA, Mooney TA | title = Impulsive pile driving noise elicits alarm responses in squid (Doryteuthis pealeii) | journal = Marine Pollution Bulletin | volume = 150 | pages = 110792 | date = January 2020 | pmid = 31910530 | doi = 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2019.110792 | bibcode = 2020MarPB.15010792J | s2cid = 210086977 | doi-access =  }}</ref> Since the responses recorded are similar to those identified when faced with a predator, it is implied that the squid initially viewed the sounds as a threat. However, it was also noted that the alarm responses decreased over a period of time, signifying that the squid had likely acclimated to the noise.<ref name="Jones_2020" /> Regardless, it is apparent that stress occurred in the squid, and although further investigation has not been pursued, researchers suspect that other implications exist that may alter the squid's survival habits.<ref name="Jones_2020" />

An additional study examined the impact noise exposure had on the [[Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin]] (''Sousa chinensis''). The dolphins were exposed to elevated noise levels due to construction in the Pearl River Estuary in China, specifically caused by the world's largest vibration hammer—the OCTA-KONG.<ref name=":17">{{cite journal | vauthors = Wang Z, Wu Y, Duan G, Cao H, Liu J, Wang K, Wang D | title = Assessing the underwater acoustics of the world's largest vibration hammer (OCTA-KONG) and its potential effects on the Indo-Pacific humpbacked dolphin (Sousa chinensis) | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages = e110590 | date = 2014-10-22 | pmid = 25338113 | pmc = 4206436 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0110590 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...9k0590W | doi-access = free }}</ref> The study suggested that while the dolphin's clicks were not affected, their whistles were because of susceptibility to [[auditory masking]].<ref name=":17" /> The noise from the OCTA-KONG was found to have been detectable by the dolphins up to 3.5&nbsp;km away from the original source, and while the noise was not found to be life-threatening it was indicated that prolonged exposure to this noise could be responsible for auditory damage.<ref name=":17" />