Editing Muslim conquests of Afghanistan (section)

===Kabulistan===
[[File:Turk Shahi 700ad.jpg|thumb|The [[Turk Shahi]] kingdom of Kabul in 700 AD]]
The area of Kabul was initially ruled by the [[Nezak Huns]]. Sometime after the defeat of their last king [[Ghar-ilchi]] at the hands of Samura, the Turkic [[Barha Tegin]] rebelled and assaulted Kabul. Ghar-ilchi was killed and Barha Tegin proceeded to proclaim himself as the king of Kabul, before taking Zabulistan in the south. The "[[Turk Shahi]]" dynasty established by him however split into two around 680 AD.<ref name=":0"/><ref name=":1"/> The dynasty was [[Buddhist]] and were followed by a [[Hindu]] dynasty shortly before the Saffarid conquest in 870 AD.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g2m7_R5P2oAC&pg=PA125|title=Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World – Volume I: Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam 7th-11th Centuries|author=André Wink|publisher=Brill|page=125|isbn=0391041738|year=2002}}</ref>

[[Al-Ma'mun]]'s expeditions were the last Arab conflict against Kabul and Zabul and the long-drawn conflict ended with the dissolution of the empire.<ref name=Majumdar1/> Muslim missionaries converted many people to Islam; however, the entire population did not convert, with repetitive revolts from the mountain tribes in the Afghan area taking place. The [[Hindu Shahi]] dynasty was defeated by [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] (r. 998–1030), who expelled them from [[Gandhara]] and also encouraged mass-conversions in Afghanistan and India.<ref name="Afghanistan Page 15">{{cite book |author=Martin Ewans |author-link=Martin Ewans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TQC4AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=Afghanistan – A New History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-29826-1 |page=15}}</ref>

During the caliphate of Uthman, new popular uprisings had broken out in Persia and continued for five years from 644 to 649. The revolts were suppressed and Abdullah b. Amir, who was appointed governor of Basra, had captured many cities including Balkh, Herat and Kabul.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pu5eCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA148|title=Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam|author=Geoff Simmons|publisher=Springer|page=148|isbn=9781349247639|date=2016-01-13}}</ref>

After Mu'awiya became the Caliph, he prepared an expedition under 'Abd ar-Rahman b. Samura to Khorasan. Per Baladhuri, after recapturing Zarang as well as conquering other cities, the Arabs besieged Kabul for a few months and finally entered it.<ref name=Shaban28/> Samura concluded a treaty and proceeded to attack Bost, al-Rukhkhaj and Zabulistan. The people of Kabul however rebelled and Samura was forced to recapture the city. The account of ''Tarjuma-i Futuhat'' however differs and states that Samura besieged the city for a year. After capturing it, he had all the soldiers massacred and their wives and children taken as captives. He also ordered the captured king Ghar-ilchi to be beheaded, but spared him when he converted. Around the same time according to al-Baladhuri, [[Al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra]] launched an attack on the Indian frontier, reaching up to [[Bannu]] and "al-Ahwaz" (Waihind).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7QWEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67|title=Resistance at the Edge of Empires: The Archaeology and History of the Bannu basin from 1000 BC to AD 1200|page=67|publisher=Cambridge University Press|author=Cameron A. Petrie|isbn=9781785703065|date=2020-12-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Śahis: An Analysis of Their History, Archaeology, Coinage and Palaeography|author=Abdur Rehman|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University|pages=58–59|year=1979}}</ref> The historian [[Firishta]] states that while capturing Kabul in 664 AD, Samura had made converts of some 12,000 people.<ref>{{cite book|title=Proceedings – Punjab History Conference, Volume 3|publisher=[[Punjabi University]]|page=59}}</ref>

The new king of Kabul [[Barha Tegin]] and the Zunbil campaigned against the Arabs after Samura's departure, recapturing Kabul, Zabulistan and al-Rukhkhaj. Rabi b. Ziyad attacked the Zunbil after becoming governor in 671 AD. His successor Ubayd Allah b. Abi Bakra continued the campaign in 673 AD, with the Zunbil negotiating for both Zabul and Kabul soon afterwards.<ref name=":1"/> About the time of death of Yazid I however, "the people of Kabul treacherously broke the compact". The Arab army sent to reimpose it was routed.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i3LDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122|title=In God's Path: The Arab Conquests and the Creation of an Islamic Empire|author=Robert G. Hoyland|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=122|author-link=Robert G. Hoyland|isbn=9780199916368|year=2015}}</ref>

In about 680–683, the kingdom split into two with the Zunbil fleeing from his brother, the king of Kabul, and approaching Salm b. Ziyad at Amul in Khorasan.  In return for him agreeing to acknowledge Salm as his overlord, the Zunbil was allowed to settle down in Amul. Soon he drove his brother out and established himself in Amul. The location of Amul mentioned by Tabari is not certain, [[Josef Markwart]] identified it with Zabul. Tabari however claims the Kabul Shah fled instead from the Zunbil and established himself as an independent king during the reign of Mu'awiya.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=The Last Two Dynasties of the Śahis: An Analysis of Their History, Archaeology, Coinage and Palaeography|author=Abdur Rehman|publisher=Centre for the Study of the Civilizations of Central Asia, Quaid-i-Azam University|page=66|year=1979}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fRjsrA5tfLIC&pg=PA76|title=The History of al-Tabari Vol. 14: The Conquest of Iran A.D. 641-643/A.H. 21-23|translator=G. Rex Smith |publisher=[[SUNY Press]]|isbn=9781438420394|page=76|year=2015}}</ref>

Abdur Rehman, who studied the descriptions of Tabari however stated that these events should be seen as having happened in Yazid's time since Salm was governor under his reign.<ref>{{cite book|title=Annals of the Institute for Research in Humanities, Kyoto University Issue=34|page=63|publisher=Zinbun-Kagaku-Kenkyusyo|year=2000}}</ref> In 152 AH (769 AD), [[Humayd ibn Qahtaba]], the governor of Khorasan, raided Kabul.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lZnDCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA187|title=The Early Abbasid Caliphate: A Political History|page=187|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=9781317358077}}</ref> According to [[Ibn al-Athir]], al-'Abbas b. Ja'far led an expedition against Kabul sent by his father Ja'far b. Muhamamad in 787–78, which Bosworth claims is the one attributed to Ibrahim b. Jibril by Al-Ya'qubi.<ref name=Jibril>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjE9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125|title=The 'Abbasid and Carolingian Empires: Comparative Studies in Civilizational Formation|pages=125–129|publisher=Brill|year=2017|isbn=9789004353046}}</ref>

The only record of an event in early Abbasid period obviously related to the area south of the Hindu Kush, is the expedition against Kabul in 792-793 ordered by [[Al-Fadl ibn Yahya]] and led by Ibrahim b. Jibril. It is mentioned by al-Tabari's chronicle, the tenth century ''Kitāb al-Wuzarā'wa al-Kuttāb'' of al-Jahshiyari and by al-Ya'qubi. Per al-Jahshiyari, he conquered Kabul and acquired a lot of wealth. Al-Ya'qubi states that rulers and landlords of Tukharistan, including Bamiyan's king, joined this army, implying it crossed the Hindu Kush from the north. It also mentions the subjugation of "Ghurwand" (present-day [[Ghorband]]). He also mentions the "Pass of Ghurwand", which judging by the itinerary of the expedition from Tukharistan to Bamiyan to [[Ghorband River|Ghorband]] valley, is identical to [[Shibar Pass]]. They then marched to Shah Bahar where an idol venerated by the locals was destroyed. The inhabitants of various towns then concluded peace treaties with Fadl, one of which was identified by [[Josef Markwart]] as [[Ancient Kapisa|Kapisa]].<ref name=Jibril/>

Al-Ma'mun (r. 813–833 AD) while visiting Khorasan, launched an attack on Kabul, whose ruler submitted to taxation.<ref name=Majumdar1/> The king of Kabul was captured and he then converted to Islam.<ref name="ba1"/> Per sources, when the Shah submitted to al-Ma'mun, he sent his crown and bejeweled throne, later seen by the Meccan historian [[al-Azraqi]], to the Caliph who praised Fadl for "curbing polytheists, breaking idols, killing the refractory" and refers to his successes against Kabul's king and ''ispahabad''. Other near-contemporary sources however refer to the artifacts as a golden jewel-encrusted idol sitting on a silver throne by the [[Hindu Shahi]] ruler or by an unnamed ruler of "Tibet" as a sign of his conversion to Islam.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OLNE_li8C10C&pg=PA30|title=Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval "Hindu-Muslim" Encounter|publisher= Princeton University Press|author=Finbarr B. Flood|page=30|isbn=978-0691125947|date=2009-05-03}}</ref>