Editing Mount Tambora (section)

==== Fatalities ====
The number of fatalities has been estimated by various sources since the 19th century. Swiss botanist [[Heinrich Zollinger]] travelled to Sumbawa in 1847 and recollected witness accounts about the 1815 eruption of Tambora. In 1855, he published estimates of directly killed people at 10,100, mostly from pyroclastic flows. A further 37,825 died from starvation on [[Sumbawa]] island.
<ref name="Haeseler2016">{{cite web |date=2016 |last=Haeseler |first=Susanne |title=Der Ausbruch des Vulkans Tambora in Indonesien im Jahr 1815 und seine weltweiten Folgen, insbesondere das "Jahr ohne Sommer" 1816 |url=https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/besondereereignisse/verschiedenes/20170727_tambora_1816_global.pdf |publisher=Deutscher Wetterdienst |pages=1–18 |language=de |access-date=2 August 2018 |archive-date=16 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216081313/https://www.dwd.de/DE/leistungen/besondereereignisse/verschiedenes/20170727_tambora_1816_global.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> On [[Lombok]], another 10,000 died from disease and hunger.<ref name="Zollinger1855">Zollinger (1855): ''Besteigung des Vulkans Tamboro auf der Insel Sumbawa und Schiderung der Eruption desselben im Jahren 1815'', Winterthur: Zurcher and Fürber, Wurster and Co., cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> Petroeschevsky (1949) estimated that about 48,000 and 44,000 people were killed on Sumbawa and Lombok, respectively.<ref name="Petroeschevsky1949">{{cite journal |last=Petroeschevsky |first=W.A. |date=1949 |title=A contribution to the knowledge of the Gunung Tambora (Sumbawa) |journal=Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig Genootschap |volume=2 |issue=66 |pages=688–703}}, cited by Oppenheimer (2003).</ref> Several authors have used Petroeschevsky's figures, such as Stothers (1984), who estimated 88,000 deaths in total.<ref name="Stothers1984"/> Tanguy et al. (1998) considered Petroeschevsky's figures based on untraceable sources, so developed an estimate based solely on two primary sources: Zollinger, who spent several months on Sumbawa after the eruption, and the notes of [[Sir Stamford Raffles]],<ref name="Raffles1830"/> Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies during the event. Tanguy pointed out that there may have been additional victims on [[Bali]] and [[East Java]] because of famine and disease, and estimated 11,000 deaths from direct volcanic action and 49,000 from post-eruption famine and epidemics.<ref name="Tanguy1998">{{cite journal |date=1998 |last1=Tanguy |first1=J.-C. |last2=Scarth |first2=A. |last3=Ribière |first3=C. |last4=Tjetjep |first4=W. S. |title=Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |pages=137–144 |volume=60 |issue=2 |doi=10.1007/s004450050222 |bibcode=1998BVol...60..137T |s2cid=129683922}}</ref> Oppenheimer (2003) estimated at least 71,000 deaths,<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and numbers as high as 117,000 have been proposed.<ref name="cao"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ <big>Comparison of major volcanic eruptions</big>
|-
! Volcano !! Location !! Year !! Column<br />height (km) !! &nbsp;[[VEI]]&nbsp; !! N. hemisphere<br />summer anomaly (°C) !! Fatalities
|-
| [[Hatepe eruption|Taupō Volcano]] || {{NZL}} || 181 || style="text-align:center;" | 51 || style="text-align:center;" | 7 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || unlikely
|-
| [[946 eruption of Paektu Mountain|Paektu Mountain]] || {{DPRK}} || 946 || style="text-align:center;" | 25 || style="text-align:center;" | 7 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || ?
|-
| [[1257 Samalas eruption|Mount Samalas]] || {{INA}} || 1257 || style="text-align:center;" | 38–43<ref>{{cite journal |date=8 August 2015 |last1=Vidal |first1=CélineM. |last2=Komorowski |first2=Jean-Christophe |last3=Métrich |first3=Nicole |last4=Pratomo |first4=Indyo |last5=Kartadinata |first5=Nugraha |last6=Prambada |first6=Oktory |last7=Michel |first7=Agnès |last8=Carazzo |first8=Guillaume |last9=Lavigne |first9=Franck |last10=Rodysill |first10=Jessica |last11=Fontijn |first11=Karen |title=Dynamics of the major plinian eruption of Samalas in 1257 A.D. (Lombok, Indonesia) |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=77 |issue=9 |pages=73 |doi=10.1007/s00445-015-0960-9 |bibcode=2015BVol...77...73V |s2cid=127929333}}</ref> || style="text-align:center;" | 7<ref>{{cite journal |date=22 January 2015 |last1=Whelley |first1=Patrick L. |last2=Newhall |first2=Christopher G. |last3=Bradley |first3=Kyle E. |title=The frequency of explosive volcanic eruptions in Southeast Asia |journal=Bulletin of Volcanology |volume=77 |issue=1 |pages=1–11 |doi=10.1007/s00445-014-0893-8 |pmid=26097277 |pmc=4470363 |bibcode=2015BVol...77....1W}}</ref> || style="text-align:center;" | −1.2<ref>{{cite journal |date=2017 |last1=Guillet |first1=Sébastien |last2=Corona |first2=Christophe |last3=Stoffel |first3=Markus |last4=Khodri |first4=Myriam |last5=Lavigne |first5=Franck |last6=Ortega |first6=Pablo |last7=Eckert |first7=Nicolas |last8=Sielenou |first8=Pascal Dkengne |last9=Daux |first9=Valérie |last10=(Sidorova) |first10=Olga V. Churakova |last11=Davi |first11=Nicole |last12=Edouard |first12=Jean-Louis |last13=Zhang |first13=Yong |last14=Luckman |first14=Brian H. |last15=Myglan |first15=Vladimir S. |last16=Guiot |first16=Joël |last17=Beniston |first17=Martin |last18=Masson-Delmotte |first18=Valérie |last19=Oppenheimer |first19=Clive |title=Climate response to the Samalas volcanic eruption in 1257 revealed by proxy records |journal=Nature Geoscience |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=123–128 |doi=10.1038/ngeo2875 |url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/68817/1/Guillet_et_al_1257_1258_Nature_Geoscience_Format_Final.pdf |bibcode=2017NatGe..10..123G |s2cid=133586732 |access-date=30 June 2019 |archive-date=28 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428122608/http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/68817/1/Guillet_et_al_1257_1258_Nature_Geoscience_Format_Final.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> || ?
|-
| [[1452/1453 mystery eruption]] || Unknown || 1452 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || style="text-align:center;" | 7 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.5 || ?
|-
| [[Huaynaputina]] || {{PER}} || 1600 || style="text-align:center;" | 46 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.8 || ≈1,400
|-
| '''Mount Tambora''' || {{INA}} || '''1815''' || style="text-align:center;" | '''44'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |title=Tambora, Sumbawa, Indonesia |website=volcano.oregonstate.edu |access-date=2019-02-26 |archive-date=17 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170617194416/http://volcano.oregonstate.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/southeast_asia/indonesia/tambora.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> || style="text-align:center;" | '''7''' || style="text-align:center;" | '''−0.5''' || '''>71,000'''
|-
| [[Krakatoa]] || {{INA}} || 1883 || style="text-align:center;" | 80 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.3 || 36,600
|-
| [[Santa María (volcano)|Santa María Volcano]] || {{GUA}} || 1902 || style="text-align:center;"| 34 || style="text-align:center;"| 6 || style="text-align:center;" | no anomaly || 7,000–13,000
|-
| [[Novarupta]] || {{USA}} || 1912 || style="text-align:center;"| 32 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.4 || 2
|-
| [[1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens|Mount St. Helens]] || {{USA}} || 1980 || style="text-align:center;" | 24 || style="text-align:center;" | 5 || style="text-align:center;" | no anomaly || 57
|-
| [[El Chichón]] || {{MEX}} || 1982 || style="text-align:center;" | 32 || style="text-align:center;"| 5 || style="text-align:center;" | ? || >2,000
|-
| [[Nevado del Ruiz]] || {{COL}} || 1985 || style="text-align:center;" | 27 || style="text-align:center;" | 3 || style="text-align:center;" | no anomaly || 23,000
|-
| [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo|Mount Pinatubo]] || {{PHI}} || 1991 || style="text-align:center;" | 34 || style="text-align:center;" | 6 || style="text-align:center;" | −0.5 || 1,202
|-
|[[2022 Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai eruption and tsunami|Hunga Tonga–Hunga Haʻapai]] ||{{TON}} || 2022 || style="text-align:center;"| 58 || style="text-align:center;"| 5–6 || style="text-align:center;"| ? ||6
|-
| colspan=7 | <span style="font-size:smaller;">Sources: Oppenheimer (2003),<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and [[Smithsonian Institution]]'s [[Global Volcanism Program]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Large Holocene Eruptions |publisher=[[Smithsonian Institution]] |access-date=7 November 2006 |work=Global Volcanism Program |url=http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm?sortorder=asc |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507134343/http://volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm?sortorder=asc |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 May 2013}}</ref></span>
|-
|}

===== Global effects =====
[[File:Greenland sulfate.png|thumb|right|[[Sulfate]] concentration in [[ice core]] from Central [[Greenland]], dated by counting [[oxygen isotope]] seasonal variations. There is an unknown eruption around the 1810s.<ref name="Dai1991">{{cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=J. |first2=E. |last2=Mosley-Thompson |first3=L.G. |last3=Thompson |date=1991 |title=Ice core evidence for an explosive tropical volcanic eruption six years preceding Tambora |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4574/f163f9c8321c258cf88710e69e0fd0a3de13.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802194725/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/4574/f163f9c8321c258cf88710e69e0fd0a3de13.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2018-08-02 |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres |volume=96 |issue=D9 |pages=17361–17366 |doi=10.1029/91JD01634 |access-date=2 August 2018 |bibcode=1991JGR....9617361D |s2cid=8384563}}</ref>]]
{{see also|Year Without a Summer}}

The 1815 eruption released 10 to 120 million tons of [[sulfur]]<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> into the [[stratosphere]], causing a global climate anomaly. Different methods have been used to estimate the ejected sulfur mass: the [[petrological]] method, an optical depth measurement based on [[anatomy|anatomical]] observations, and the [[polar region|polar]] [[ice core]] sulfate concentration method, which calibrated against cores from [[Greenland]] and [[Antarctica]].

In the spring and summer of 1816, a persistent stratospheric sulfate [[aerosol]] veil, described then as a "dry fog", was observed in the northeastern United States. It was not dispersed by wind or rainfall, and it reddened and dimmed sunlight to an extent that sunspots were visible to the naked eye.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Areas of the [[northern hemisphere]] suffered extreme weather conditions and 1816 became known as the "[[Year Without a Summer|year without a summer]]". Average global temperatures decreased about {{convert|0.4|to|0.7|C-change|1}},<ref name="Stothers1984"/> enough to cause significant agricultural problems around the globe. After 4 June 1816, when there were frosts in [[Connecticut]], cold weather expanded over most of [[New England]]. On 6 June 1816, it snowed in [[Albany, New York]] and [[Dennysville, Maine]]. Similar conditions persisted for at least three months, ruining most crops across North America while Canada experienced extreme cold. Snow fell until 10 June near [[Quebec City]], accumulating to {{convert|30|cm|in}}.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/>

That year became the second-coldest year in the northern hemisphere since 1400,<ref name="Briffa1998"/> while the 1810s were the coldest decade on record, a result of Tambora's eruption and other suspected volcanic events between 1809 and 1810.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cole-Dai |first1=Jihong |last2=Ferris |first2=David |last3=Lanciki |first3=Alyson |last4=Savarino |first4=Joël |last5=Baroni |first5=Mélanie |last6=Thiemens |first6=Mark H. |title=Cold decade (AD 1810–1819) caused by Tambora (1815) and another (1809) stratospheric volcanic eruption |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=1 November 2009 |volume=36 |issue=22 |pages=L22703 |doi=10.1029/2009GL040882 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01757253/file/cole_dai_grl_09.pdf |bibcode=2009GeoRL..3622703C |s2cid=10579910 |access-date=30 June 2019 |archive-date=6 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206085906/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01757253/file/cole_dai_grl_09.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> (See sulfate concentration chart.) Surface-temperature anomalies during the summers of 1816, 1817 and 1818 were −0.51, −0.44 and −0.29&nbsp;°C, respectively.<ref name="Briffa1998"/> Along with a cooler summer, parts of Europe experienced a stormier winter,<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> and the [[Elbe River|Elbe]] and [[Ohře River]]s froze over for twelve days in February 1816. As a result, prices of [[wheat]], [[rye]], [[barley]] and [[oats]] rose dramatically by 1817.<ref name="Brazdil2016">{{cite journal |date=2016 |last1=Brázdil |first1=Rudolf |last2=Řezníčková |first2=Ladislava |last3=Valášek |first3=Hubert |last4=Dolák |first4=Lukáš |last5=Kotyza |first5=Oldřich |title=Climatic effects and impacts of the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in the Czech Lands |journal=Climate of the Past |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=1361–1374 |doi=10.5194/cp-12-1361-2016 |bibcode=2016CliPa..12.1361B |doi-access=free}}</ref>

This climate anomaly has been cited as a reason for the severity of the 1816–19 [[typhus]] epidemic in southeast Europe and the eastern Mediterranean.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/> Large numbers of livestock died in [[New England]] during the winter of 1816–1817, while cool temperatures and heavy rains led to failed harvests in the British Isles. Families in [[Wales]] travelled long distances as refugees, begging for food. Famine was prevalent in north and southwest Ireland, following the failure of wheat, oat and potato harvests. The crisis was severe in Germany, where food prices rose sharply. Demonstrations at grain markets and bakeries, followed by riots, arson and looting, took place in many European cities. It was the worst famine of the 19th century.<ref name="Oppenheimer2003"/>