Editing Moose (section)

== Ecology and biology ==
===Diet===
[[File:Moose mate.ogg|thumb|Moose mate]]
The moose is a [[Browsing (herbivory)|browsing herbivore]] and is capable of consuming many types of plant or fruit. The average adult moose needs to consume {{convert|23000|kcal|MJ|abbr=off|order=flip|sp=us}} per day to maintain its body weight.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uj8lAQAAMAAJ&dq=moose+calories+needed&pg=PA96 |publisher=United States Department of the Interior Fish and Wildlife Service |title=Report of the Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit Calendar Year 1971 |date=1972 |location=Washington, D. C. |access-date=22 January 2024 |archive-date=16 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716062700/https://books.google.com/books?id=Uj8lAQAAMAAJ&dq=moose+calories+needed&pg=PA96 |url-status=live }}</ref> Much of a moose's energy is derived from terrestrial vegetation, mainly consisting of [[forb]]s and other non-grasses, and fresh shoots from trees such as [[willow]] and [[birch]]. As these terrestrial plants are rather low in [[sodium]], as much as half of its diet usually consists of aquatic plants, including [[Nymphaeaceae|lilies]] and [[Elodea|pondweed]],<ref>[http://www.mooseworld.com/diet.htm Moose diet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125060007/http://mooseworld.com/diet.htm |date=November 25, 2010 }} Mooseworld. Retrieved on January 9, 2011.</ref> which while lower in energy content, provide the moose with its sodium requirements.<ref name="Richard F Page 84-85">{{cite book |title=Biology by numbers: an encouragement to quantitative thinking |first=Richard F. |last=Burton |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1998 |pages=84–85}}</ref> In winter, moose are often drawn to roadways, to lick salt that is used as a snow and ice melter.<ref>{{cite book |title=Journey to New England |first1=Patricia |last1=Harris |first2=David |last2=Lyon |publisher=Patricia Harris-David Lyon |date=1999 |page=398}}</ref> A typical moose, weighing {{convert|360|kg|0|abbr=on|sp=us}}, can eat up to {{convert|32|kg|0|abbr=on|sp=us}} of food per day.<ref name="Richard F Page 84-85"/>

Moose lack upper front [[teeth]], but have eight sharp incisors on the lower jaw. They also have a tough tongue, lips and gums, which aid in the eating of woody vegetation. Moose have six pairs of large, flat molars and, ahead of those, six pairs of premolars, to grind up their food. A moose's upper lip is very sensitive, to help distinguish between fresh shoots and harder twigs, and is [[prehensile]], for grasping their food. In the summer, moose may use this prehensile lip for grabbing branches and pulling, stripping the entire branch of leaves in a single mouthful, or for pulling [[forbs]], like [[dandelion]]s, or aquatic plants up by the base, roots and all.<ref name=Rodgers2001>{{citation|title=Moose|first=Art|last=Rodgers|publisher=Voyager Press|year=2001|page=[https://archive.org/details/moose0000rodg/page/34 34]|isbn=978-0-89658-521-8|url=https://archive.org/details/moose0000rodg/page/34}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Seasons of the Moose |first1=Jennie |last1=Promack |first2=Thomas J. |last2=Sanker |publisher=Gibbs Smith |date=1992 |page=21}}</ref> A moose's diet often depends on its location, but they seem to prefer the new growths from [[deciduous tree]]s with a high sugar content, such as white birch, [[Populus tremuloides|trembling aspen]] and [[striped maple]], among many others.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mooseworld.com/diet.htm |title=Moose diet |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101125060007/http://mooseworld.com/diet.htm |archive-date=November 25, 2010 |website=Mooseworld |access-date=January 9, 2011}}</ref> To reach high branches, a moose may bend small saplings down, using its prehensile lip, mouth or body. For larger trees a moose may stand erect and walk upright on its hind legs, allowing it to reach branches up to {{convert|4.26|m|ftin|sp=us}} or higher above the ground.<ref>{{cite book |title=North American big-game animals |first=Byron |last=Dalrymple |publisher=Stoeger Publishing |date=1983 |page=84}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Land and Wildlife of North America |first=Peter |last=Farb |publisher=California State department of Education |date=1966 |page=177}}</ref> Moose may consume [[ferns]] from time to time.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Timmermann |first1=H. R. |last2=McNicol |first2=J. G. |date=June 1988 |title=Moose Habitat Needs |url=https://pubs.cif-ifc.org/doi/10.5558/tfc64238-3 |journal=The Forestry Chronicle |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=238–245 |doi=10.5558/tfc64238-3 |issn=0015-7546}}</ref>

Moose are excellent swimmers and are known to wade into water to eat aquatic plants. This trait serves a second purpose in cooling down the moose on summer days and ridding itself of [[Black fly|black flies]]. Moose are thus attracted to marshes and river banks during warmer months as both provide suitable vegetation to eat and water to wet themselves in. Moose have been known to dive over {{convert|18|ft|m|order=flip}} to reach plants on lake bottoms,<ref name="Peterson">{{cite book |last1=Peterson |first1=Randolph L. |title=North American Moose |date=1955 |publisher=University of Toronto |location=Toronto |isbn=0-8020-7021-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SB_xAAAAMAAJ |quote=Water is definitely one of the preferred elements in the habitat of moose. When feeding on submerged aquatic vegetation they occasionally dive for plants in water over 18 feet deep. |access-date=August 28, 2020 |archive-date=March 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328013345/https://books.google.com/books?id=SB_xAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}</ref> and the complex snout may assist the moose in this type of feeding. Moose are the only deer that are capable of feeding underwater.<ref name="World Page 237">{{cite book |title=Deer of the World: Their Evolution, Behaviour, and Ecology |first=Valerius |last=Geist |publisher=Stackpole Books |date=1998 |page=237}}</ref> As an adaptation for feeding on plants underwater, the nose is equipped with fatty pads and muscles that close the nostrils when exposed to water pressure, preventing water from entering the nose.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/science/2004-05-05-moose-nose_x.htm|title=Researchers take a look at the moose's enigmatic nose|work=USA Today|last=Sharp |first=David |agency=Associated Press |access-date=May 18, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518105004/http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/science/2004-05-05-moose-nose_x.htm|archive-date=May 18, 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Other species can pluck plants from the water too, but these need to raise their heads in order to swallow.

{{multiple image|image1=Moose exclosure.jpg|image2=Moose exclosure sign.jpg|footer=This fenced-in area is part of a long-term research project to examine the effects of moose browsing on plant biodiversity.}}
Moose are not [[grazing]] animals but [[browsing (herbivory)|browsers]] (concentrate selectors), and their diet varies on a continuum between soft-leaf browsing and browsing of lignified plant matter.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berlioz |first1=Emilie |last2=Leduc |first2=Charlotte |last3=Hofman-Kamińska |first3=Emilia |last4=Bignon-Lau |first4=Olivier |last5=Kowalczyk |first5=Rafał |last6=Merceron |first6=Gildas |date=15 January 2022 |title=Dental microwear foraging ecology of a large browsing ruminant in Northern Hemisphere: The European moose (Alces alces) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0031018221005393 |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |language=en |volume=586 |pages=110754 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2021.110754 |bibcode=2022PPP...58610754B |access-date=7 April 2025 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Like [[giraffe]]s, moose carefully select foods with less fiber and more concentrations of nutrients. Thus, the moose's digestive system has evolved to accommodate this relatively low-fiber diet. Unlike most hooved, domesticated animals ([[ruminant]]s), moose cannot digest [[hay]], and feeding it to a moose can be fatal.<ref>{{cite book |title=Comparative Animal Nutrition and Metabolism |first1=Peter R. |last1=Cheeke |first2=Ellen Sue |last2=Dierenfeld |publisher=CABI |date=2010 |page=24}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.juneauempire.com/stories/122603/sta_hay.shtml#.VroopVJvy-4|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160301221605/http://m.juneauempire.com/stories/122603/sta_hay.shtml#.VroopVJvy-4|archive-date=March 1, 2016|title=Deadly diet of hay can bring down a moose |via=Juneau Empire|work=Fairbanks Daily News-Miner|first=Tim|last=Mowry|date=December 26, 2003}}</ref> The moose's varied and complex diet is typically expensive for humans to provide, and free-range moose require a lot of forested hectarage for sustainable survival, which is one of the main reasons moose have never been widely domesticated.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

<gallery heights="160px" mode="packed">
File:Alces alces bark stripping.jpg|left|[[Bark (botany)|Bark]] stripping
File:Bull moose close up feeding on fireweed.JPG|Bull moose eating a [[fireweed]] plant
File:Moose 983 LAB.jpg|Bull moose browses a [[beaver]] pond
</gallery>

=== Natural predators ===
[[File:Moose Tiger.jpg|thumb|left|[[Iron Age]] saddle from [[Siberia]], depicting a moose being hunted by a [[Siberian tiger]].]]
[[File:Wolves attack moose 2012-04-12 001 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Moose attacked by wolves]]

A full-grown moose has few enemies except [[Siberian tiger]]s (''Panthera tigris tigris'') which regularly prey on adult moose,<ref name=FBW>{{cite book| author=Frasef, A.| year=2012| title=Feline Behaviour and Welfare| publisher=CABI| pages=72–77 |isbn=978-1-84593-926-7}}</ref><ref>[http://www.tigrisfoundation.nl/cms/publish/content/showpage.asp?pageid=25 Tigris Foundation dedicated to the survival of the Amur tiger and leopard in the wild : UK HOME] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110817021258/http://www.tigrisfoundation.nl/cms/publish/content/showpage.asp?pageid=25 |date=August 17, 2011 }}. Tigrisfoundation.nl (November 13, 1999). Retrieved on 2011-01-09.</ref><ref>Hayward, M. W., Jędrzejewski, W., & Jedrzejewska, B. (2012). ''Prey preferences of the tiger Panthera tigris''. Journal of Zoology, 286(3), 221-231.</ref> but a pack of [[Gray wolf|gray wolves]] (''Canis lupus'') can still pose a threat, especially to females with calves.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Nancy |last1=Long |first2=Kurt |last2=Savikko |url=http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/furbear/wolf.php |title=Wolf: Wildlife Notebook Series – Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.state.ak.us |date=December 17, 2007 |access-date=November 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115175008/http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/furbear/wolf.php |archive-date=November 15, 2010 }}</ref> [[Brown bear]]s (''Ursus arctos'')<ref name="Nancy Long / Kurt Savikko"/> are also known to prey on moose of various sizes and are the only predator besides the wolf to attack moose both in Eurasia and North America. In Western Russia, moose provide about 15% annual estimated dietary energy content for brown bears and are the most important food source for these predators during spring.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ogurtsov |first1=Sergey S. |last2=Khapugin |first2=Anatoliy A. |last3=Zheltukhin |first3=Anatoliy S. |last4=Fedoseeva |first4=Elena B. |last5=Antropov |first5=Alexander V. |last6=Mar Delgado |first6=María del |last7=Penteriani |first7=Vincenzo |title=Brown bear food habits in natural and human-modified landscapes in West-European Russia |journal=Ursus |date=11 January 2024 |volume=2023 |issue=34e11 |doi=10.2192/URSUS-D-22-00007|s2cid=266933839 }}</ref> However, Brown bears are more likely to scavenge a wolf kill or to take young moose than to hunt adult moose on their own.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Nancy |last1=Long |first2=Kurt |last2=Savikko |url=http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/biggame/brnbear.php |title=Brown Bear: Wildlife Notebook Series – Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=Adfg.state.ak.us |date=August 7, 2009 |access-date=November 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091129232831/http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/biggame/brnbear.php |archive-date=November 29, 2009 }}</ref><ref>Opseth, O. (1998). ''Brown bear (Ursus arctos) diet and predation on moose (Alces alces) calves in the southern taiga zone in Sweden''. Cand Sci Thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim.</ref><ref>Mattson, D. J. (1997). ''Use of ungulates by Yellowstone grizzly bears Ursus arctos''. Biological Conservation, 81(1), 161-177.</ref> [[American black bear|Black bears]] (''Ursus americanus'') and [[cougar]]s (''Puma concolor'') can be significant predators of moose calves in May and June and can, in rare instances, prey on adults (mainly cows rather than the larger bulls).<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_5/Schwartz_Franzmann_Vol_5.pdf |jstor=3872518 |title=Effects of Tree Crushing on Black Bear Predation on Moose Calves |first1=Charles C. |last1=Schwartz |first2=Albert W. |last2=Franzmann |name-list-style=amp |journal=Bears: Their Biology and Management |volume=5 |pages=40–44 |publisher=A Selection of Papers from the Fifth International Conference on Bear Research and Management, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, February 1980 |year=1983 |doi=10.2307/3872518 |access-date=December 10, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217060309/http://www.bearbiology.com/fileadmin/tpl/Downloads/URSUS/Vol_5/Schwartz_Franzmann_Vol_5.pdf |archive-date=December 17, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=87 |title=Hinterland Who's Who – Cougar |publisher=Hww.ca |access-date=November 27, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100926111053/http://hww.ca/hww2.asp?id=87 |archive-date=September 26, 2010 }}</ref> [[Wolverine]]s (''Gulo gulo'') are most likely to eat moose as carrion but have killed moose, including adults, when the large ungulates are weakened by harsh winter conditions.<ref>{{cite web |title=Wolverine Species Profile, Alaska Department of Fish and Game |url=https://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wolverine.printerfriendly#:~:text=Wolverines%20are%20opportunistic%3B%20eating%20about,are%20well%20adapted%20for%20scavenging.&text=In%20the%20right%20situations%2C%20wolverines,when%20they%20are%20most%20vulnerable. |website=www.adfg.alaska.gov |language=en |access-date=2022-04-02 |archive-date=2022-04-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416033334/http://www.adfg.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=wolverine.printerfriendly#:~:text=Wolverines%20are%20opportunistic%3B%20eating%20about,are%20well%20adapted%20for%20scavenging.&text=In%20the%20right%20situations%2C%20wolverines,when%20they%20are%20most%20vulnerable. |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Scrafford, Matthew A., and Mark S. Boyce. "Temporal patterns of wolverine (Gulo gulo luscus) foraging in the boreal forest." Journal of Mammalogy 99, no. 3 (2018): 693-701.</ref><ref name=Smith>{{cite web|url=http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-499-01-0001.pdf|title=Gulo gulo – The American Society of Mammalogists|publisher=smith.edu|access-date=June 22, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120617132035/http://www.science.smith.edu/msi/pdf/i0076-3519-499-01-0001.pdf|archive-date=June 17, 2012}}</ref> [[Orca]]s (''Orcinus orca'') are the moose's only confirmed marine predator as they have been known to prey on moose and other deer swimming between islands out of North America's Northwest Coast. However, such kills are rare and a matter of opportunity, as moose are not a regular part of the orca diet.<ref name="BairdBaird2006">{{cite book|first1=Robert W.|last1=Baird|first2=Robin W.|last2=Baird|title=Killer Whales of the World: Natural History and Conservation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rjksm-5-ap4C&pg=PA23|access-date=February 2, 2011|date=August 31, 2006|publisher=Voyageur Press|isbn=978-0-7603-2654-1|pages=23–|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721191653/http://books.google.com/books?id=Rjksm-5-ap4C&pg=PA23|archive-date=July 21, 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> There is at least one recorded instance of a moose being scavenged by a [[Greenland shark]] (''Somniosus microcephalus'').<ref>{{cite news|title=Moose-eating shark rescued in Newfoundland harbour|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/moose-eating-shark-rescued-in-newfoundland-harbour-1.2434102|website=CBC Newfoundland & Labrador|publisher=Canadian Broatcasting Corporation|access-date=May 15, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160523025548/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/newfoundland-labrador/moose-eating-shark-rescued-in-newfoundland-harbour-1.2434102|archive-date=May 23, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Moose mom with calves and a bear, Deanli National Park.png|thumb|Moose with calves being approached by a brown bear, Denali National Park, Alaska]]
In some areas, moose are the primary source of food for wolves. Moose usually flee upon detecting wolves. Wolves usually follow moose at a distance of {{convert|100|to|400|m|ft|-2|sp=us}}, occasionally at a distance of {{convert|2|to|3|km|frac=2|spell=in|sp=us}}. Attacks from wolves against young moose may last seconds, though sometimes they can be drawn out for days with adults. Sometimes, wolves will chase moose into shallow streams or onto frozen rivers, where their mobility is greatly impeded. Moose will sometimes stand their ground and defend themselves by charging at the wolves or lashing out at them with their powerful hooves. Wolves typically kill moose by tearing at their haunches and [[perineum]], causing massive [[blood loss]]. Occasionally, a wolf may immobilize a moose by biting its sensitive nose, the pain of which can [[paralysis|paralyze]] a moose.<ref name="Graves">{{cite book|author = Graves, Will|url = http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/|title = Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages|year = 2007|page = 222|isbn = 978-1-55059-332-7|publisher = Detselig Enterprises|location = Calgary|oclc = 80431846|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090802182158/http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/|archive-date = August 2, 2009}}</ref> Wolf packs primarily target calves and elderly animals, but can and will take healthy, adult moose. Moose between the ages of two and eight are seldom killed by wolves.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nwf.org:80/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueID=35&articleID=589 |title=Watching Wolves On a Wild Ride By Les Line, National Wildlife Federation, December/January 2001, vol. 39 no. 1 |publisher=Nwf.org:80 |access-date=February 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308150339/http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueID=35&articleID=589 |archive-date=March 8, 2008 }}</ref> Though moose are usually hunted by packs, there are cases in which single wolves have successfully killed healthy, fully-grown moose.<ref name="raven">{{cite web |url=http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF17/1702.html |title=Alaska Science Forum, June 10, 2004 ''Are ravens responsible for wolf packs?'' Article #1702 by Ned Rozell |publisher=Gi.alaska.edu |date=June 10, 2004 |access-date=February 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124100228/http://www.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum/ASF17/1702.html |archive-date=November 24, 2010 }}</ref><ref>''Carnivores of the World'' by Dr. Luke Hunter. Princeton University Press (2011), {{ISBN|978-0-691-15228-8}}</ref>

Research into moose predation suggests that their response to perceived threats is learned rather than instinctual. In practical terms this means moose are more vulnerable in areas where wolf or bear populations were decimated in the past but are now rebounding. These same studies suggest, however, that moose learn quickly and adapt, fleeing an area if they hear or smell wolves, bears, or scavenger birds such as ravens.<ref>Berger, Joel; Swenson, Jon E.; Persson, Inga-Lill [https://web.archive.org/web/20130512211113/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-70741145.html Recolonizing Carnivores and Naive Prey: Conservation Lessons from Pleistocene Extinctions.] ''Science'' September 2, 2001</ref>

Moose are also subject to various diseases and forms of parasitism. In northern Europe, the [[Cephenemyia ulrichii|moose botfly]] is a parasite whose range seems to be spreading.<ref name=larver>{{cite journal|last=Jaenson|first=Thomas G.T.|title=Larver av nässtyngfluga i ögat - ovanligt men allvarligt problem. Fall av human oftalmomyiasis från Dalarna och sydöstra Finland redovisas (summary)|journal=Läkartidningen|volume=108|issue=16|year=2011|url=http://ltarkiv.lakartidningen.se/artNo39551P|access-date=June 21, 2011|quote=Moose bot fly larvae are common parasites of moose (''Alces alces'') in north and central Sweden. Last year, however, ''C. ulrichii'' was on three occasions recorded for the first time from Småland, south Sweden.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927083253/http://ltarkiv.lakartidningen.se/artNo39551P|archive-date=September 27, 2011}}</ref>

===Parasites===
Moose typically carry a heavy burden of parasites, both externally and internally. Parasitosis is an important cause of moose morbidity and mortality and also contributes to vulnerability to predators.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Debow |first1=Jacob |last2=Blouin |first2=Joshua |last3=Rosenblatt |first3=Elias |last4=Alexander |first4=Cedric |last5=Gieder |first5=Katherina |last6=Cottrell |first6=Walter |last7=Murdoch |first7=James |last8=Donovan |first8=Therese |title=Effects of Winter Ticks and Internal Parasites on Moose Survival in Vermont, USA |journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management |date=September 2021 |volume=85 |issue=7 |pages=1423–1439 |doi=10.1002/jwmg.22101|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021JWMan..85.1423D }}</ref> [[Ectoparasites]] of moose include the [[Cephenemyia ulrichii|moose nose bot fly]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rolandsen |first1=Christer M. |last2=Madslien |first2=Knut |last3=Ytrehus |first3=Bjørnar |last4=Hamnes |first4=Inger Sofie |last5=Solberg |first5=Erling J. |last6=Mysterud |first6=Atle |last7=Vikøren |first7=Turid |last8=Våge |first8=Jørn |last9=Hanssen |first9=Oddvar |last10=Miller |first10=Andrea L. |title=Distribution, prevalence and intensity of moose nose bot fly (Cephenemyia ulrichii) larvae in moose (Alces alces) from Norway |journal=International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife |date=August 2021 |volume=15 |pages=120–126 |doi=10.1016/j.ijppaw.2021.04.012|pmid=33996444 |pmc=8105593 |bibcode=2021IJPPW..15..120R |hdl=10852/85965 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> and [[Dermacentor albipictus|winter ticks]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ellingwood |first1=Daniel D. |last2=Pekins |first2=Peter J. |last3=Jones |first3=Henry |last4=Musante |first4=Anthony R. |title=Evaluating moose Alces alces population response to infestation level of winter ticks Dermacentor albipictus |journal=Wildlife Biology |date=16 June 2020 |volume=2020 |issue=2 |page=1 |doi=10.2981/wlb.00619 |s2cid=220526796 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3339&context=icwdm_usdanwrc |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020WildB202000619E |access-date=28 October 2021 |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517041202/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3339&context=icwdm_usdanwrc |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Endoparasites]] of moose include [[Echinococcus granulosus|dog tapeworm]], [[Parelaphostrongylus tenuis|meningeal worm]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wünschmann |first1=Arno |last2=Armien |first2=Anibal G. |last3=Butler |first3=Erika |last4=Schrage |first4=Mike |last5=Stromberg |first5=Bert |last6=Bender |first6=Jeff B. |last7=Firshman |first7=Anna M. |last8=Carstensen |first8=Michelle |title=NECROPSY FINDINGS IN 62 OPPORTUNISTICALLY COLLECTED FREE-RANGING MOOSE (ALCES ALCES) FROM MINNESOTA, USA (2003–13) |journal=Journal of Wildlife Diseases |date=1 January 2015 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=157–165 |doi=10.7589/2014-02-037|pmid=25390764 |s2cid=19770221 }}</ref> lungworm, and roundworm.

===Social structure and reproduction===
[[File:Riddle of the racks.jpg|thumb|Display at the [[Kenai National Wildlife Refuge]] of the skulls of two bulls who apparently died after their antlers became locked during a fight.]]
Moose are mostly [[Diurnality|diurnal]]. They are generally solitary with the strongest bonds between mother and calf. Although moose rarely gather in groups, there may be several in close proximity during the mating season.

Rutting and mating occurs in September and October. During the [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]], mature bulls will cease feeding completely for a period of approximately two weeks; this fasting behavior has been attributed to neurophysiological changes related to redeployment of olfaction for detection of moose urine and moose cows.<ref>Miquelle, Dale G. "Why don't bull moose eat during the rut?." [[Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology]] 27, no. 2 (1990): 145-151.</ref> The males are [[lek mating|polygynous and will seek several females to breed with]]. During this time both sexes will call to each other. Males produce heavy grunting sounds that can be heard from up to {{convert|500|m}} away, while females produce wail-like sounds.<ref>{{cite web|author=DW Hartt, Data|first2=Web |last2=Coordinator |url=http://www.nwtwildlife.com/NWTwildlife/moose/reproduction.htm |title=Moose Reproduction |access-date=February 16, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424001305/http://www.nwtwildlife.com/NWTwildlife/moose/reproduction.htm |archive-date=April 24, 2008}}</ref> Males will fight for access to females. Initially, the males assess which of them is dominant and one bull may retreat, however, the interaction can escalate to a fight using their antlers.

Female moose have an eight-month gestation period, usually bearing one calf, or twins if food is plentiful,<ref>{{Cite book|publisher = [[Smithsonian Institution Press]]|isbn = 978-1-56098-845-8|last = Ruff|first = Sue|title = The Smithsonian Book of North American Mammals|location = Washington|year = 1999|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/smithsonianbooko0000unse}}</ref> in May or June.<ref>{{cite web|title = Moose|website=[[Minnesota DNR]]|access-date = November 11, 2009|url = http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mammals/moose/index.html|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091207233626/http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/mammals/moose/index.html|archive-date = December 7, 2009}}</ref> Twinning can run as high as 30% to 40% with good nutrition<ref name="A.T. Bergerud">{{cite web|first1=Vince|last1=Crichton|author2=A. T. Bergerud|first3=Erin|last3=James-Abra|url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/moose|title=Moose|publisher=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]]|access-date=September 1, 2019}}</ref> Newborn moose have fur with a reddish hue in contrast to the brown appearance of an adult. The young will stay with the mother until just before the next young are born. The lifespan of an average moose is about 15–25 years. Moose populations are stable at 25 calves for every 100 cows at 1 year of age. With availability of adequate nutrition, mild weather, and low predation, moose have a huge potential for population expansion.<ref name="A.T. Bergerud"/>

<gallery heights="120px" mode="packed">
File:Moose calves nursing.jpg|(newborn)<br/>Calves nursing in spring.
File:Cowcalflyingdown.JPG|(3 months)<br/>Calves stay near their mothers at all times.
File:Ninemomoose.JPG|(9 months)<br/>This calf is almost ready to leave its mother.
File:Mainstmoose.JPG|(10–11 months)<br/>This yearling was probably recently chased away by its pregnant mother.
</gallery>

===Aggression===
Moose are not typically aggressive towards humans, but will be aggressive when provoked or frightened. Moose attack more people than [[bear]]s and [[Gray wolf|wolves]] combined, but usually with only minor consequences. In the Americas, moose injure more people than any other wild mammal; worldwide, only hippopotamuses injure more.<ref>Adventure Guide Inside Passage & Coastal Alaska By Ed Readicker-Henderson, Lynn Readicker-Henderson – Hunter Publishing 2006 Page 49</ref> When harassed or startled by people or in the presence of a [[dog]], moose may charge. Also, as with bears or most wild animals, moose accustomed to being fed by people may act aggressively when denied food. During the fall mating season, bulls may be aggressive toward humans. Cows are protective of young calves and will attack humans who come close, especially if they come between mother and calf. Moose are not territorial, do not view humans as food, and usually will not pursue humans who run away.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wildlife.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=aawildlife.agmoose |title=What To Do About Aggressive Moose, Division of Wildlife Conservation, Alaska Department of Fish and Game |publisher=wildlife.alaska.gov |access-date=November 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091105013619/http://www.wildlife.alaska.gov/index.cfm?adfg=aawildlife.agmoose |archive-date=November 5, 2009 }}</ref>

[[File:Bull moose growing new antlers and shedding fur.JPG|thumb|A bull, disturbed by the photographer, lowers his head and raises his [[hackles]].]]
Moose are unpredictable. They are most likely to attack if annoyed or harassed, or if approached too closely. A moose that has been harassed may vent its anger on anyone in the vicinity, and they often do not make distinctions between their tormentors and innocent passersby.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}} Moose are very limber animals with highly flexible joints and sharp, pointed hooves, and are capable of kicking with both front and back legs. Unlike other large, hoofed mammals, such as horses, moose can kick in all directions, including sideways. Thus, there is no safe side from which to approach. Moose often give warning signs prior to attacking, displaying aggression by means of body language. Maintained eye contact is usually the first sign of aggression, while laid-back ears or a lowered head is a sign of agitation. When the hairs on the back of the moose's neck and shoulders ([[hackles]]) stand up, a charge is usually imminent. The [[Anchorage]] Visitor Centers warn tourists that "...a moose with its hackles raised is a thing to fear."<ref>''Adventure Guide Alaska Highway'' By Ed Readicker-Henderson, Lynn Readicker-Henderson – Hunter Publishing 2006 Page 416</ref><ref>''Explorer's Guide 50 Hikes Around Anchorage'' By Lisa Maloney – The Countryman Press 2010 Page 16</ref><ref>''Field & Stream'' Aug 2002 – Page 75--77</ref><ref>''Wilderness Camping & Hiking'' By Paul Tawrell – Exxa Nature 2007 Page 161</ref>

Moose cows are more likely to emit protest moans when courted by small males. This attracts the attention of large males, promotes male-male competition and violence, reduces harassment of cows by small males, and increases mating opportunities with large males.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bowyer |first1=R. Terry |last2=Rachlow |first2=Janet L. |last3=Stewart |first3=Kelley M. |last4=Van Ballenberghe |first4=Victor |title=Vocalizations by Alaskan moose: female incitation of male aggression |journal=Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology |date=December 2011 |volume=65 |issue=12 |pages=2251–2260 |doi=10.1007/s00265-011-1234-y|bibcode=2011BEcoS..65.2251B |s2cid=20008798 }}</ref> This in turn means that the cow moose has at least a small degree of control over which bulls she mates with.<ref>US Fed News Service, [https://web.archive.org/web/20130512211143/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-2416873911.html Female moose moans provoke bull fights, females have more choice in picking mates, concludes Idaho state university study] March 8, 2011</ref>

Moose often show aggression to other animals as well, especially predators. Bears are common predators of moose calves and, rarely, adults. Alaskan moose have been reported to successfully fend off attacks from both black and brown bears. Moose have been known to stomp attacking wolves, which makes them less preferred as prey to the wolves. Moose are fully capable of killing bears and wolves. In one rare event, a female moose killed two adult male wolves.<ref name="v.106 (1992)">{{Cite book|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34347342|title=v.106 (1992) – The Canadian field-naturalist|date=21 February 1992|volume=106|access-date=22 August 2021|archive-date=22 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210822183532/https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/34347342|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Weaver, J.L., C. Arvidson, and P. Wood. 1992. Two Wolves, ''Canis lupus'', killed by a Moose, ''Alces alces'', in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Field-Naturalist 106(1): 126-127.</ref> A moose of either sex that is confronted by danger may let out a loud roar, more resembling that of a predator than a prey animal. European moose are often more aggressive than North American moose, such as the moose in Sweden, which often become very agitated at the sight of a predator. However, like all ungulates known to attack predators, the more aggressive individuals are always darker in color, with the darkest coloring usually in areas facing the opponent, thus serving as a natural warning to other animals.<ref name="World Page 237"/>