Editing Moksha (section)

== History ==

The concept of ''moksha'' appears much later in ancient Indian literature than the concept of ''dharma''. The proto-concept that first appears in the ancient Sanskrit verses and early Upanishads is ''mucyate'', which means "freed" or "released". In the middle and later Upanishads, such as the [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad|Svetasvatara]] and [[Maitrayaniya Upanishad|Maitri]], the word ''moksha'' appears and begins becoming an important concept.<ref name=danielingalls/><ref>see:
* Klaus Klostermaier (1985), Mokṣa and Critical Theory, Philosophy East and West, 35 (1), pp 61–71
* Roeser, R.W. (2005), An introduction to Hindu Indiaís contemplative psychological perspectives on motivation, self, and development, in M.L. Maehr & S. Karabenick (Eds.), Advances in Motivation and Achievement, Volume 14: Religion and Motivation. Elsevier, pp. 297–345</ref>

The [[Katha Upanishad]],<ref>Sometimes called Katha Upanishad – for example, by Max Muller, Nakhilananda</ref> a middle Upanishadic-era script dated to the second half of the first millennium BCE, is among the earliest expositions about ''saṃsāra'' and ''moksha''. In Book I, Section III, the legend of boy Nachiketa queries [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]], the lord of death to explain what causes ''saṃsāra'' and what leads to liberation.<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-0842616454}}, pp 269–290</ref> Naciketa inquires: what causes sorrow? Yama explains that suffering and ''saṃsāra'' results from a life that is lived absent-mindedly, with impurity, with neither the use of intelligence nor self-examination, where neither mind nor senses are guided by one's ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)|atma]]'' (soul, self).<ref name=oxfordatmandef>'''[a]''' [https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman], Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), '''Quote''': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul";<br>'''[b]''' John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0192800947}}, See entry for Atman;<br>'''[c]''' WJ Johnson (2009), ''A Dictionary of Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198610250}}, See entry for Atman (self).</ref><ref name=3defsatman>'''[a]''' David Lorenzen (2004), ''The Hindu World'' (Editors: Sushil Mittal and Gene Thursby), Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415215277}}, pages 208–209, '''Quote''': "Advaita and nirguni movements, on the other hand, stress an interior mysticism in which the devotee seeks to discover the identity of individual soul (atman) with the universal ground of being (brahman) or to find god within himself".;<br>'''[b]''' Richard King (1995), ''Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism'', State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791425138}}, page 64, '''Quote:''' "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".<br>'''[c]''' Chad Meister (2010), ''The Oxford Handbook of Religious Diversity'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195340136}}, page 63; '''Quote''': "Even though Buddhism explicitly rejected the Hindu ideas of ''Atman'' (soul) and Brahman, Hinduism treats Sakyamuni Buddha as one of the ten avatars of Vishnu."</ref> Liberation comes from a life lived with inner purity, alert mind, led by ''buddhi'' (reason, intelligence), realization of the Supreme Self (''purusha'') who dwells in all beings. Kathaka Upanishad asserts knowledge liberates, knowledge is freedom.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-0842616454}}, pp 283–289</ref><ref>S. Nikhilananda, ''The Principal Upanishads'', Dover Publications, {{ISBN|978-0486427171}}, pp 63–84</ref> Kathaka Upanishad also explains the role of yoga in personal liberation, ''moksha''.

The [[Svetasvatara Upanishad]], another middle-era Upanishad written after ''Kathaka Upanishad'', begins with questions such as why is man born? what is the primal cause behind the universe? what causes joy and sorrow in life?<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-0842616454}}, pp 301–326</ref> It then examines the various theories, that were then existing, about saṃsāra and release from bondage. Svetasvatara claims<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-0842616454}}, pp 316, 319–325</ref> that bondage results from ignorance, illusion or delusion; deliverance comes from knowledge. The Supreme Being dwells in every being, he is the primal cause, he is the eternal law, he is the essence of everything, he is nature, he is not a separate entity. Liberation comes to those who know Supreme Being is present as the Universal Spirit and Principle, just as they know butter is present in milk. Such realization, claims Svetasvatara, come from self-knowledge and self-discipline; and this knowledge and realization is liberation from transmigration, the final goal of the Upanishad.<ref>Paul Deussen, ''Sixty Upanishads of the Veda'', Vol 1, {{ISBN|978-0842616454}}, pp 305–306, 322–325</ref>

{{multiple image
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| footer = The Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and creative arts, [[Saraswati|Sarasvati]], is sometimes depicted alongside a swan, which is a symbol of spiritual perfection, liberation and moksha.<ref name=jbrl>see:
* John Bowker (1998), ''Picturing God'', Series Editor: Jean Holm, Bloomsbury Academic, {{ISBN|978-1855671010}}, pp 99–101;
* Richard Leviton (2011), ''Hierophantic Landscapes'', {{ISBN|978-1462054145}}, pp 543</ref> The symbolism of Sarasvati and the swan is that knowledge and moksha go together.
| image2 = SwansCygnus olor edit2.jpg
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| width1 = 94
}}
Starting with the middle Upanishad era, ''moksha'' – or equivalent terms such as ''mukti'' and ''kaivalya'' – is a major theme in many [[Upanishad]]s. For example, Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad, one of several Upanishads of the [[Bhakti yoga|bhakti school]] of Hinduism, starts out with prayers to Goddess Sarasvati. She is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, learning and creative arts;<ref name=jbrl/> her name is a compound word of ''sara''<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=sAra&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 सार] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany</ref> and ''sva'',<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=sva&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 स्व] Sanskrit English Dictionary, Germany</ref> meaning "essence of self". After the prayer verses, the Upanishad inquires about the secret to freedom and liberation (mukti). Sarasvati's reply in the Upanishad is:

{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
It was through me the Creator himself gained liberating knowledge,
I am being, consciousness, bliss, eternal freedom: unsullied, unlimited, unending.
My perfect consciousness shines your world, like a beautiful face in a soiled mirror,
Seeing that reflection I wish myself you, an individual soul, as if I could be finite!

A finite soul, an infinite Goddess – these are false concepts,
in the minds of those unacquainted with truth,
No space, my loving devotee, exists between your self and my self,
Know this and you are free. This is the secret wisdom.
</poem>
| 2=Sarasvati Rahasya Upanishad|3=Translated by Linda Johnsen<ref>Linda Johnsen (2002), ''The Living Goddess: Reclaiming the Tradition of the Mother of the Universe'', {{ISBN|978-0936663289}}, pp 51–52; for Sanskrit original see: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/allfilelist.html सरस्वतीरहस्योपनिषत्] sarasvatIrahasya</ref>
}}

=== Evolution of the concept ===

The concept of ''moksha'', according to [[Daniel H. H. Ingalls, Sr.|Daniel Ingalls]],<ref name=danielingalls/> represented one of the many expansions in Hindu Vedic ideas of life and the afterlife. In the Vedas, there were three [[Ashrama (stage)|stages]] of life: studentship, householdship and retirement. During the Upanishadic era, Hinduism expanded this to include a fourth stage of life: [[Sannyasa|complete abandonment]]. In Vedic literature, there are three modes of experience: waking, dream and deep sleep. The Upanishadic era expanded these modes to include ''turiyam'' – the stage beyond deep sleep. The Vedas suggest three goals of man: [[kama]], [[artha]] and [[dharma]]. To these, the Upanishadic era added ''moksha''.<ref name=danielingalls>Daniel H. H. Ingalls, "Dharma and Moksha", ''Philosophy East and West'', Vol. 7, No. 1/2 (Apr. – Jul., 1957), pp. 41–48</ref>

The acceptance of the concept of ''moksha'' in some schools of [[Hindu philosophy]] was slow. These refused to recognize ''moksha'' for centuries, considering it irrelevant.<ref name=danielingalls/> The Mimamsa school, for example, denied the goal and relevance of ''moksha'' well into the 8th century AD, until the arrival of a Mimamsa scholar named [[Kumarila]].<ref>see:
* M. Hiriyanna (1952), [[:iarchive:Mysore.Hiriyanna-The.Quest.After.Perfection|The Quest After Perfection]], Kavyalaya Publishers, pp 23–33
* John Taber, "The significance of Kumarila's Philosophy", in Roy Perrett (Ed) – ''Theory of Value'', Vol 5, {{ISBN|978-0815336129}} pp. 113–161
* Okita, K. (2008), "Mīmāṃsā and Vedānta: Interaction and Continuity", ''The Journal of Hindu Studies'', 1(1–2), pp 155–156</ref> Instead of ''moksha'', the Mimamsa school of Hinduism considered the concept of heaven as sufficient to answer the question: what lay beyond this world after death. Other schools of Hinduism, over time, accepted the ''moksha'' concept and refined it over time.<ref name=danielingalls/>

It is unclear when the core ideas of samsara and ''moksha'' developed in ancient India. Patrick Olivelle suggests these ideas likely originated with new religious movements in the first millennium BCE.<ref name="Brittanica">[[Patrick Olivelle]] (2012), ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387852/moksha "Moksha (Indian religions)"]</ref> The concepts of ''mukti'' and ''moksha'', suggests [[J. A. B. van Buitenen]],<ref name=jabvb/> seem traceable to yogis in Hinduism, with long hair, who chose to live on the fringes of society, given to self-induced states of intoxication and ecstasy, possibly accepted as medicine-men and "sadhus" by ancient Indian society.<ref name=danielingalls/> ''Moksha'' to these early concept-developers, was the abandonment of the established order, not in favor of anarchy, but in favor of self-realization, to achieve release from this world.<ref>J.A.B. van Buitenen, in Roy Perrett (Editor) –'' Theory of Value'', Volume 5, {{ISBN|0-8153-3612-8}}, Taylor & Francis, pp 25–32</ref>

[[File:Silhouette yoga.png|thumb|220px|Mokṣha is a key concept in [[Yoga]], where it is a state of "awakening", liberation and freedom in this life.<ref>see:
* [[Mircea Eliade]] (1958, Reprinted: 2009), ''Yoga: Immortality and Freedom'', Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|978-0691142036}}, pp 33–34;
* Sarah Strauss (2005), ''Positioning Yoga'', Berg/Oxford International, {{ISBN|1-85973-739-0}}, pp 15</ref>]]

In its historical development, the concept of ''moksha'' appears in three forms: Vedic, yogic and bhakti.

In the Vedic period, ''moksha'' was ritualistic.<ref name="jabvb" /> Mokṣa was claimed to result from properly completed rituals such as those before ''Agni'' – the fire deity. The significance of these rituals was to reproduce and recite the cosmic-creation event described in the Vedas; the description of knowledge on different levels – ''adhilokam'', ''adhibhutam'', ''adhiyajnam'', ''adhyatmam'' – helped the individual transcend to moksa. Knowledge was the means, the ritual its application.

By the middle to late Upanishadic period, the emphasis shifted to knowledge, and ritual activities were considered irrelevant to the attainment of ''moksha''.<ref name="amalinar">Angelika Malinar (2011), in [[Jessica Frazier]] (ed.), ''The Bloomsbury companion to Hindu studies'', {{ISBN|978-1-4725-1151-5}}, Chapter 4</ref> [[Yoga|Yogic]] ''moksha''<ref name="jabvb" /><ref>Knut Jacobson, in Jessica Frazier (Editor), ''Continuum companion to Hindu studies'', {{ISBN|978-0-8264-9966-0}}, pp 74–82</ref> replaced Vedic rituals with [[personal development]] and meditation, with hierarchical creation of the ultimate knowledge in self as the path to ''moksha''. Yogic ''moksha'' principles were accepted in many other schools of Hinduism, albeit with differences. For example, [[Adi Shankara]] in his book on ''moksha'' suggests:
{{Blockquote|
1=<poem>
अर्थस्य निश्चयो दृष्टो विचारेण हितोक्तितः |
न स्नानेन न दानेन प्राणायमशतेन वा || १३ ||

By reflection, reasoning and instructions of teachers, the truth is known,
Not by ablutions, not by making donations, nor by performing hundreds of breath control exercises. || Verse 13 ||
</poem>
| 2=[[Vivekachudamani]]|3=8th Century AD<ref>See:
* John Richards (Translator), Vivekachudamani, {{ISBN|978-0979726743}} (2011 Edition);
* Madhavananda's [[:iarchive:vivekachudamanio00sankrich|translation of Vivekachudamani]] published in 1921, Himalayan Series 43;</ref>

}}
Bhakti ''moksha'' created the third historical path, where neither rituals nor meditative self-development were the way, rather it was inspired by constant love and contemplation of God, which over time results in a perfect union with God.<ref name=jabvb/> Some Bhakti schools evolved their ideas where God became the means and the end, transcending ''moksha''; the fruit of bhakti is bhakti itself.<ref>Klaus Klostermaier (1986), "Contemporary conceptions among North Indian Vaishnavas", in Ronald Neufeldt (Editor) – ''Karma and Rebirth Post Classical Developments'', {{ISBN|978-0873959902}}, State University of New York Press, Chapter 5</ref> In the history of Indian religious traditions, additional ideas and paths to ''moksha'' beyond these three, appeared over time.<ref>D. Datta (1888), "Moksha, or the Vedántic Release", ''Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland'', New Series, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1888), pp. 513–539</ref>