Editing Misanthropy (section)

=== History of philosophy ===
Misanthropy has been discussed and exemplified by philosophers throughout history. One of the earliest cases was the [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic philosopher]] [[Heraclitus]]. He is often characterized as a solitary person who is not fond of social interactions with others. A central factor to his negative outlook on human beings was their lack of comprehension of the true nature of reality. This concerns especially cases in which they remain in a state of ignorance despite having received a thorough explanation of the issue in question.{{sfn|Moyal|1989|pp=[http://www.jstor.org/stable/24353851 131–148]}}{{sfn|Mark|2010}}{{sfn|Ava|2004|p=80}} Another early discussion is found in Plato's Phaedo, where misanthropy is characterized as the result of frustrated expectations and excessively naïve optimism.{{sfn|Stern|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nJAFnvm2fg4C 95]}}{{sfn|Shakespeare|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mcQ0AAAAQBAJ&pg=PT208 208]}}{{sfn|White|1989|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsdfdzRSLYAC&pg=PA134 134]}}

[[File:Diogenes looking for a man - attributed to JHW Tischbein.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Diogenes search for an honest man|The cynic philosopher Diogenes had a negative image of the people around him and cared little for social conventions. For example, he used to walk around with a lamp in full daylight in his unsuccessful attempt to find a man he would consider honest or worthy.{{sfn|Yeroulanos|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=knv1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA203 203]}}{{sfn|Navia|1996}}]]
Various reflections on misanthropy are also found in the [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynic school of philosophy]]. There it is argued, for instance, that humans keep on reproducing and multiplying the evils they are attempting to flee. An example given by the first-century philosopher [[Dio Chrysostom]] is that humans move to cities to defend themselves against outsiders but this process thwarts their initial goal by leading to even more violence due to high crime rates within the city. [[Diogenes]] is a well-known cynic misanthrope. He saw other people as hypocritical and superficial. He openly rejected all kinds of societal norms and values, often provoking others by consciously breaking conventions and behaving rudely.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=14–6}}{{sfn|Querido|2020|pp=152–7}}{{sfn|Arruzza|Nikulin|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yLWPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA119 119]}}

Thomas Hobbes is an example of misanthropy in early [[modern philosophy]]. His negative outlook on humanity is reflected in many of his works. For him, humans are egoistic and violent: they act according to their self-interest and are willing to pursue their goals at the expense of others. In their natural state, this leads to a never-ending war in which "[[Bellum omnium contra omnes|every man to every man ... is an enemy]]". He saw the establishment of an authoritative state characterized by the strict enforcement of laws to maintain order as the only way to tame the violent human nature and avoid [[perpetual war]].{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=93, 95, 98}}{{sfn|Williams|2023}}{{sfn|Byrne|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FcEy8SF63TgC&pg=PA112 112]}}

A further type of misanthropy is found in [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. He idealizes the harmony and simplicity found in nature and contrasts them with the confusion and disorder found in humanity, especially in the form of society and institutions.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=110–1}}{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=19}}{{sfn|King|1993|pp=58–9}} For instance, he claims that "Man is born free; and everywhere he is in chains".{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=112}}{{sfn|Williams|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nsRrONAvdnYC&pg=PA147 147]}} This negative outlook was also reflected in his lifestyle: he lived solitary and preferred to be with plants rather than humans.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=111}}

Arthur Schopenhauer is often mentioned as a prime example of misanthropy.{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=12, 15}}{{sfn|Gibson|2017|p=101}} According to him, everything in the world, including humans and their activities, is an expression of one underlying will. This will is blind, which causes it to continuously engage in futile struggles. On the level of human life, this "presents itself as a continual deception" since it is driven by pointless [[desire]]s. They are mostly egoistic and often result in [[injustice]] and [[suffering]] to others. Once they are satisfied, they only give rise to new pointless desires and more suffering.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=101–3}}{{sfn|Svoboda|2022|pp=15–6}}{{sfn|Troxell|2023}} In this regard, Schopenhauer dismisses most things that are typically considered precious or meaningful in human life, like romantic love, individuality, and liberty.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=104–5}} He holds that the best response to the human condition is a form of [[asceticism]] by denying the expression of the will. This is only found in rare humans and "the dull majority of men" does not live up to this ideal.{{sfn|Gibson|2017|pp=105–6}}

[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], who was strongly influenced by Schopenhauer, is also often cited as an example of misanthropy. He saw man as a decadent and "sick animal" that shows no progress over other animals.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=2}}{{sfn|Villa|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc3xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}}{{sfn|Wilkerson|2023}} He even expressed a negative attitude toward apes since they are more similar to human beings than other animals, for example, with regard to cruelty.{{sfn|Cooper|2018|p=62}} For Nietzsche, a noteworthy flaw of human beings is their tendency to create and enforce systems of [[Morality|moral rules]] that favor weak people and suppress true greatness.{{sfn|Villa|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wc3xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}}{{sfn|Solomon|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VuQiiM-ntHwC&pg=PA67 67]}} He held that the human being is something to be overcome and used the term [[Übermensch]] to describe an ideal individual who has transcended traditional moral and societal norms.{{sfn|Shaw|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ic9EAAAQBAJ&pg=PR32 xxxii]}}{{sfn|Grillaert|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7YFFSa5YE5wC&pg=PA245 245]}}