Editing Minneapolis–Saint Paul (section)

==Geology==
{{See also|Geology of Minnesota}}

Like much of Minnesota, the Twin Cities area was shaped by water and ice over millions of years. The area's land sits atop thick layers of [[sandstone]] and [[limestone]] laid down as seas encroached upon and receded from the region. Erosion caused natural caves to develop, which were expanded into [[mining|mine]]s when white settlers came to the area. During [[Prohibition]], at least one [[speakeasy]] was built into these hidden spaces—eventually refurbished as Saint Paul's [[Wabasha Street Caves]].

Lakes across the area were formed and altered by the movement of [[glacier]]s. This left many bodies of water in the region, some with unusual shapes. For example, [[Lake Minnetonka]], toward the western side of the Twin Cities, consists of a complex arrangement of channels and large bays. Elevations in the area range from {{convert|1376|ft|m|0}} above sea level in the northwest metro to {{convert|666|ft|m|0}} at the edge of the [[Mississippi River]] in the southeast.

[[File:Bald Eagle-Burnsville-2006-01-15.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bald eagle]] in [[Burnsville, Minnesota|Burnsville]]]]

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of the Twin Cities}}
{{update|section|2=2014|date=January 2023}}<!-- Climate change and the passage of time generally has made a lot of this section outdated. For example, the area has certainly had multiple days with temps over 100 °F since 2014.-->
[[File:Quarry Park-20060819.jpg|thumb|left|August swimming at Quarry Park and Nature Preserve, [[Waite Park, Minnesota|Waite Park]] near [[St. Cloud, Minnesota|St. Cloud]]]]
Owing to their northerly latitude and inland location, the Twin Cities experience the coldest climate of any major metropolitan area in the United States.<ref>{{cite web | title = Minneapolis Minnesota | publisher = TrekkerTime.com | url = http://trekkertime.com/index.php/Site/MinneapolisMinnesota | access-date = 2007-05-07 }}</ref> But due to their southern location in the state and the [[urban heat island]], the Twin Cities are among Minnesota's warmest places.<ref>{{cite web | title = History of the NWS in the Twin Cities | publisher = [[National Weather Service]] | date = November 9, 2005 | url = http://www.crh.noaa.gov/mpx/history/chanhassen.php | access-date = 2007-05-07 }}</ref> The average annual temperature recorded at the [[Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport]] is {{convert|45.4|°F}}; {{convert|3.5|F-change}} colder than [[Winona, Minnesota]], and {{convert|8.8|F-change}} warmer than [[Roseau, Minnesota]].<ref name=almanac>{{cite book | last = Seeley | first = Mark W. | title = Minnesota Weather Almanac | publisher = [[Minnesota Historical Society]] press | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-87351-554-4 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/minnesotaweather0000seel }}</ref> Monthly average daily high temperatures range from {{convert|21.9|°F}} in January to {{convert|83.3|°F}} in July; the average daily minimum temperatures for those months are {{convert|4.3|°F}} and {{convert|63.0|°F}} respectively.<ref>{{cite web | title = Climatography of MSP | publisher = [[National Climatic Data Center]] | date = 1971–2000 | url = http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/climatenormals/climatenormals.pl | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120709213708/http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/climatenormals/climatenormals.pl |url-status = dead| archive-date = 2012-07-09 }}</ref>

[[File:Saint Paul-2007-01-27.jpg|thumb|Viewing the [[Saint Paul Winter Carnival]] parade in January.]]
Minimum temperatures of {{convert|0|°F}} or lower are seen on an average of 29.7 days per year, and 76.2 days do not have a maximum temperature exceeding the freezing point. Temperatures above {{convert|90|°F}} occur an average of 15 times per year. Higher temperatures at or above {{convert|100|°F}} are recorded once every 4–5 years on average, and sometimes during a single summer.<ref>{{cite web |title= A History of 100 Degrees in the Twin Cities  |publisher = Minnesota Department of Natural Resources |url=https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/climate/journal/100degreesmsp.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607030448/http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/climate/journal/100degreesmsp.html |archive-date=2024-06-07}}</ref> The lowest temperature ever reported at the Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport was {{convert|-34|°F}} on January 22, 1936; the highest, {{convert|108|°F}}, was reported on July 14 of the same year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/temp/mn/215435_tsum.html |title=Temperature Summary – 215435 MINNEAPOLIS WSFO AP, MN |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522210716/http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/temp/mn/215435_tsum.html |archive-date=2014-05-22 }}</ref> Early settlement records at Fort Snelling show temperatures as low as {{convert|-42|°F}}. Recent records include {{convert|-40|°F}} at Vadnais Lake on February 2, 1996 (National Climatic Data Center).

[[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] averages {{convert|29.41|in|mm}} per year, and is most plentiful in June ({{convert|4.34|in|mm}}) and least so in February ({{convert|0.79|in|mm}}). The greatest one-day rainfall amount was {{convert|9.15|in|mm}}, reported on July 23, 1987. The cities' record for lowest annual precipitation was set in 1910, when {{convert|11.54|in|mm}} fell throughout the year; coincidentally, the opposite record of {{convert|40.15|in|mm}} was set the next year.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/precip/mn/215435_psum.html |title=Precipitation Summary – 215435 MINNEAPOLIS WSFO AP, MN |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140519164424/http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/precip/mn/215435_psum.html |archive-date=2014-05-19 }}</ref> At an annual average of {{convert|56.3|in|cm}}, snowfall is generally abundant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/snow/mn/215435_ssum.html |title=Snowfall Summary – 215435 MINNEAPOLIS WSFO AP, MN |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419172700/http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/snow/mn/215435_ssum.html |archive-date=2014-04-19 }}</ref>

The Twin Cities area takes the brunt of many types of extreme weather, including high-speed straight-line winds, tornadoes, flash floods, drought, heat, bitter cold, and blizzards. The costliest weather disaster in Twin Cities history was a [[derecho]] event on May 15, 1998. Hail and wind damage exceeded $950 million, much of it in the Twin Cities.<ref>{{cite web|last=Scott |first=Woelm |title=Top 10 Minnesota Severe Weather Events 1990–1999 |publisher=Metro Skywarn |date=June 30, 2006 |url=http://www.skywarn.ampr.org/mn_top10.html |access-date=2007-05-07 |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328054606/http://www.skywarn.ampr.org/mn_top10.html |archive-date=March 28, 2007 }}</ref> Other memorable Twin Cities weather-related events include the [[1965 Twin Cities tornado outbreak|tornado outbreak]] on May 6, 1965, the [[Armistice Day Blizzard]] on November 11, 1940, and the [[Halloween Blizzard]] of 1991. In [[January–February 2019 North American cold wave|January 2019]], Minnesota experienced its coldest temperatures since 1996, when a polar vortex dropped temperatures as low as {{convert|-56|°F}} in [[Cotton, Minnesota]], with wind-chill temperatures lower than {{convert|-60|°F}} in much of the state. These temperatures are colder than those found on the surface of [[Mars]]. (See: [https://www.dnr.state.mn.us/climate/journal/cold-outbreak-january-27-31-2019.html Department of Natural Resources - Cold Outbreak: January 27-31, 2019])

A normal growing season in the metro extends from late April or early May through the month of October.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/grow/mn/215435_gsum.html |title=Growing Season Summary – 215435 MINNEAPOLIS WSFO AP, MN |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709204101/http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/historical/grow/mn/215435_gsum.html |archive-date=2013-07-09 }}</ref> The USDA places the area in the 4a [[plant hardiness zone]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/hzm-nm1.html|title=USNA – USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map:North-Midwest US|access-date=2014-05-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140629140038/http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/hzm-nm1.html|archive-date=2014-06-29|url-status = dead}}</ref>