Editing Meteorology (section)

===Observation networks and weather forecasting===
[[File:Cloud types.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Cloud classification by altitude of occurrence]]
[[File:Hyetographic_or_Rain_Map_of_the_World_1848_Alexander_Keith_Johnston.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|This "Hyetographic or Rain Map of the World" was first published 1848 by [[Alexander Keith Johnston (1804–1871)|Alexander Keith Johnston]].]]
[[File:Hyetographic_or_Rain_Map_of_Europe_1848_Alexander_Keith_Johnston.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|This "Hyetographic or Rain Map of Europe" was also published in 1848 as part of "The Physical Atlas".]]
{{See also|History of surface weather analysis}}

In the late 16th century and first half of the 17th century a range of meteorological instruments were invented – the [[thermometer]], [[barometer]], [[hydrometer]], as well as wind and rain gauges. In the 1650s natural philosophers started using these instruments to systematically record weather observations. Scientific academies established weather diaries and organised observational networks.<ref name="ModScience">{{Cite book|title = The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2003|author=John L. Heilbron|isbn=9780199743766|pages=518}}</ref> In 1654, [[Ferdinando II de Medici]] established the first ''weather observing'' network, that consisted of meteorological stations in [[Florence]], [[Cutigliano]], [[Vallombrosa]], [[Bologna]], [[Parma]], [[Milan]], [[Innsbruck]], [[Osnabrück]], Paris and [[Warsaw]]. The collected data were sent to Florence at regular time intervals.<ref>Raymond S. Bradley, Philip D. Jones, ''Climate Since A.D. 1500'', Routledge, 1992, {{ISBN|0-415-07593-9}}, p.144</ref> In the 1660s [[Robert Hooke]] of the [[Royal Society of London]] sponsored networks of weather observers. [[Hippocrates]]' treatise ''Airs, Waters, and Places'' had linked weather to disease. Thus early meteorologists attempted to correlate weather patterns with epidemic outbreaks, and the climate with public health.<ref name="ModScience" />

During the [[Age of Enlightenment]] meteorology tried to rationalise traditional weather lore, including astrological meteorology. But there were also attempts to establish a theoretical understanding of weather phenomena. [[Edmond Halley]] and [[George Hadley]] tried to explain [[trade winds]]. They reasoned that the rising mass of heated equator air is replaced by an inflow of cooler air from high latitudes. A flow of warm air at high altitude from equator to poles in turn established an early picture of circulation. Frustration with the lack of discipline among weather observers, and the poor quality of the instruments, led the early modern [[nation states]] to organise large observation networks. Thus, by the end of the 18th century, meteorologists had access to large quantities of reliable weather data.<ref name="ModScience" /> In 1832, an electromagnetic telegraph was created by [[Baron Schilling]].<ref>{{cite web|first=Rebecca |last=Martin |date=2009 |url=http://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?%2Fcatapult%2Findepth%2Ftelegraph.htm |title=News on the wire |website=[[ABC Online]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303171042/https://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?%2Fcatapult%2Findepth%2Ftelegraph.htm |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=12 May 2009}}</ref> The arrival of the [[electrical telegraph]] in 1837 afforded, for the first time, a practical method for quickly gathering [[surface weather observation]]s from a wide area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sfbmhtml/sfbmtelessay.html |title=The Invention of the Telegraph |last=Bruno |first=Leonard C. |access-date=1 January 2009 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] |website=memory.loc.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111022122/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/sfbmhtml/sfbmtelessay.html |archive-date=11 January 2009 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

This data could be used to produce maps of the state of the atmosphere for a region near the Earth's surface and to study how these states evolved through time. To make frequent weather forecasts based on these data required a reliable network of observations, but it was not until 1849 that the [[Smithsonian Institution]] began to establish an observation network across the United States under the leadership of [[Joseph Henry]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm |title=Smithsonian Institution Archives |access-date=16 June 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020020548/http://www.si.edu/archives/ihd/jhp/joseph03.htm |archive-date=20 October 2006 }}</ref> Similar observation networks were established in Europe at this time. The Reverend [[William Clement Ley]] was key in understanding of cirrus clouds and early understandings of [[Jet Stream]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.rmets.org/event/66b0c4c8-1f3a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19/abstract/fa253828-213a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19|title=Prophet without Honour: The Reverend William Clement Ley and the hunt for the jet stream|work=rmets.org|access-date=13 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828052608/https://www.rmets.org/event/66b0c4c8-1f3a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19/abstract/fa253828-213a-e511-80d0-005056b14b19|archive-date=28 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas]], known as 'CKM' Douglas read Ley's papers after his death and carried on the early study of weather systems.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Meteorologist's profile — Charles Kenneth Mackinnon Douglas, OBE, AFC, MA|journal = Weather|first=M.|last=Field|date=1 October 1999|volume=54|issue=10|pages=321–327|doi=10.1002/j.1477-8696.1999.tb03992.x|bibcode=1999Wthr...54..321F| s2cid=120325369 }}</ref>
Nineteenth century researchers in meteorology were drawn from military or medical backgrounds, rather than trained as dedicated scientists.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Williamson|first=Fiona|date=1 September 2015|title=Weathering the empire: meteorological research in the early British straits settlements|journal=The British Journal for the History of Science|volume=48|issue=3|pages=475–492|doi=10.1017/S000708741500028X|pmid=26234178|issn=1474-001X|url=https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/2662|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116083758/https://ink.library.smu.edu.sg/soss_research/2662/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1854, the United Kingdom government appointed [[Robert FitzRoy]] to the new office of ''Meteorological Statist to the Board of Trade'' with the task of gathering weather observations at sea. FitzRoy's office became the [[Met Office|United Kingdom Meteorological Office]] in 1854, the second oldest national meteorological service in the world (the [[Central Institution for Meteorology and Geodynamics]] (ZAMG) in Austria was founded in 1851 and is the oldest weather service in the world). The first daily weather forecasts made by FitzRoy's Office were published in ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper in 1860. The following year a system was introduced of hoisting storm warning cones at principal ports when a gale was expected.

FitzRoy coined the term "weather forecast" and tried to separate scientific approaches from prophetic ones.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Anderson, Katharine |year=1999 |title=The weather prophets: science and reputation in Victorian meteorology |journal=History of Science |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=179–215 |bibcode=1999HisSc..37..179A |doi=10.1177/007327539903700203 |s2cid=142652078}}</ref>

Over the next 50 years, many countries established national meteorological services. The [[India Meteorological Department]] (1875) was established to follow tropical cyclone and [[monsoon]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[India Meteorological Department]] |url=http://www.imd.gov.in/doc/history/eastablishment-of-imd.htm |title=Establishment of IMD |website=imd.gov.in |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120224108/http://www.imd.gov.in/doc/history/eastablishment-of-imd.htm |archive-date=20 November 2015 |url-status=dead |access-date=1 January 2009}}</ref> The Finnish Meteorological Central Office (1881) was formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of [[Helsinki University]].<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Finnish Meteorological Institute]] |url=http://www.fmi.fi/organization/history.html |title=History of Finnish Meteorological Institute |website=fmi.fi |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100725213620/http://www.fmi.fi/organization/history.html |archive-date=25 July 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=1 January 2009}}</ref> Japan's Tokyo Meteorological Observatory, the forerunner of the [[Japan Meteorological Agency]], began constructing surface weather maps in 1883.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Japan Meteorological Agency]] |url=http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/History/indexe_his.htm |title=History |website=jma.go.jp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225034901/http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/en/History/indexe_his.htm |archive-date=25 December 2010 |url-status=dead |access-date=22 October 2006}}</ref> The [[United States Weather Bureau]] (1890) was established under the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]. The [[Bureau of Meteorology|Australian Bureau of Meteorology]] (1906) was established by a Meteorology Act to unify existing state meteorological services.<ref name="ABC">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/01/01/2129737.htm |title=BOM celebrates 100 years |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=31 December 2007 |access-date=2 January 2009 |archive-date=5 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105152147/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2008-01-01/bom-celebrates-100-years/1000082 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Collections in Perth: 20. Meteorology |publisher=National Archives of Australia |url=http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/Publications/research_guides/guides/perth/chapter20.htm |access-date=24 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120212210812/http://www.naa.gov.au/naaresources/Publications/research_guides/guides/perth/chapter20.htm |archive-date=12 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>