Editing Mali Empire (section)

==Government==
As founded by Mari Djata, it was composed of the "three freely allied states" of Mali, Mema and Wagadou plus the [[Twelve Doors of Mali]].<ref name=sundiata/>

The Twelve Doors of Mali were a coalition of conquered or allied territories, mostly within Manden, with sworn allegiance to Sundiata and his descendants. Upon stabbing their spears into the ground before Sundiata's throne, each of the twelve kings relinquished their kingdom to the Keita dynasty.<ref name=sundiata/> In return for their submission, they became "farbas", a combination of the Mandinka words "farin" and "ba" (great farin).<ref>Person, Yves: ''SAMORI: UNE REVOLUTION DYULA''. Nîmes, impr. Barnier, 1968.</ref> Farin was a general term for northern commander at the time. These farbas would rule their old kingdoms in the name of the ''mansa'' with most of the authority they held prior to joining the empire.

The Mansa held ultimate, unquestioned authority. Audiences with the monarch were governed by strict protocol.{{sfn|Cissoko|1983|pp=59}} Conquered areas were ruled directly by the state through a ''farin'' (also called ''farin-ba'' or ''farba''), essentially a military governor, chosen by the Mansa. Duties of the ''farin'' included managing the garrison, collecting taxes and customs duties, and controlling the local administration of justice. He could also take power away from the native administration if required and raise an army in the area for defence or putting down rebellions.<ref name="google2" /> This system tended to promote assimilation into the empire.{{sfn|Cissoko|1983|pp=59}}

The ''mansa's'' second in command was a general, thought to have been chief of the armed forces. The ''santigui'' was the chief of the treasury and managed the royal granaries and valuable goods such as gold and gems. The ''[[griot]]'' played a very important role in the royal court. He was the tutor of princes and master of ceremonies, and served as an advisor to the king.

The ''mansa'' often liked to play the role "father of his people", dispensing justice himself in solemn sessions, and he listened personally to a subject's grievances against a ''farin''. The post of ''farin'' was very prestigious, and his descendants could inherit it with the ''mansa'''s approval. The ''mansa'' could also replace a ''farin'' swiftly.<ref name="unesco">{{cite book |last=Niane |first=Djibril |title=General History of Africa: Volume 4 |chapter=Mali and the second Mandingo expansion |publisher=UNESCO Publishing |year=1984 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000184287}}</ref>{{rp|pages=152, 160}}

Most of the empire consisted of autonomous kingdoms of communities who recognized the Mansa's ultimate authority and paid tribute.{{sfn|Cissoko|1983|pp=59}} At the local level (village, town and city), ''kun-tiguis'' (heads of family) elected a ''dougou-tigui'' (village-master) from a bloodline descended from that locality's founder.<ref>{{citation | last=O'Sullivan | first=John M. | year=1980 | title=Slavery in the Malinke Kingdom of Kabadougou (Ivory Coast) | journal=International Journal of African Historical Studies | volume=13 | issue=4 | pages=633–650 | doi=10.2307/218199 | jstor=218199}}</ref> The county level administrators called ''kafo-tigui'' were appointed by the governor of the province.<ref name=peoplesand/> Only at the state or province level was there any real interference from the central authority. Provinces picked their own governors via their own custom (election, inheritance, etc.) and, regardless of their title in the province, were recognised as ''dyamani-tigui'' (province-master) by the ''mansa''.<ref name=peoplesand/> ''Dyamani-tiguis'' had to be approved by the ''mansa'' and were subject to his oversight. If the ''mansa'' didn't believe the ''dyamani-tigui'' was capable or trustworthy, a ''farba'' might be installed to oversee the province or administer it outright.

Conquered territories that had proven quiescent could receive this level of autonomy rather than remain under direct rule, but territories that were crucial to trade or subject to revolt could and did lose this privilege as well and have a ''farin'' installed to rule over them.<ref name="google2">{{cite web|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://www.afrique-gouvernance.net/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-340.html&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=6&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3Dfarba,%2Bmansa%26hl%3Den |title=How the Mali Empire in the 12th century revolved levels of governance |access-date=2009-09-16}}</ref>

Mali was densely populated with the [[Tarikh al-Sudan]] stating:
{{Blockquote|"The territory of Jenne is fertile and populated; many markets are held every day of the week. It is said there are 7077 villages [heavily disputed] situated very close to each other. The following will give an idea how close they are. If the Sultan, for example, wishes to summon an inhabitant of a village near Lake Debo, the messenger sent goes to one of the gates of the ram-parts and from there shouts the message he is to transmit. From village to village, people repeat the words and the message arrives almost immediately at its destination and the man in question goes to the meeting place"<ref name="unesco" />{{rp|pages=156}}}}

=== Great Assembly ===
The [[Gbara]] or Great Assembly would serve as the Mandinka deliberative body and council of state until the collapse of the empire in 1645. Its first meeting, at the famous [[Kouroukan Fouga]] (Division of the World), had 29 clan delegates presided over by a ''belen-tigui'' (master of ceremony). The Kouroukan Fouga put in place social and economic reforms including prohibitions on the maltreatment of prisoners and slaves, installing documents between clans which clearly stated who could say what about whom. Also, Sundiata divided the lands amongst the people assuring everyone had a place in the empire and fixed exchange rates for common products.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Kouroukan Fouga|url=https://ambamali.ca/en/kouroukan-fouga/|website=Embassy of Mali in Canada|language=en-CA|access-date=2020-05-10}}</ref>

The final incarnation of the Gbara, according to the surviving traditions of northern [[Guinea]], held 32 positions occupied by 28 clans.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.wildaf-ao.org/eng/IMG/pdf/THE_CHARTER_OF_KURUKAN_FUGA__Anglais_1.pdf] {{dead link|date=December 2014}}</ref> It functioned as the ruler's cabinet, with different dignitaries given different portfolios (war, justice, economy, foreign relations, religion, etc.), and all major social groups of Mande society were represented.{{sfn|Cissoko|1983|pp=59}}

===Territorial administration===
[[File:The Mali Empire.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=A map of West Africa showing The Mali Empire in 1337, along with its major trade routes and goldfields.|The Mali Empire in 1337, including the location of the [[Bambouk|Bambuk]], [[Siguiri|Bure]], [[Gaoua|Lobi]] and [[Bono state|Akan]] Goldfields<ref>{{cite book |last1=Meredith |first1=Martin |title=The Fortunes of Africa |date=2014 |publisher=Public Affairs |location=New York |isbn=9781610396356 |page=75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Shillington |first1=Kevin |title=History of Africa |date=2012 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=London |isbn=9780230308473 |pages=101–102}}</ref>]]

The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any other West African state before or since. What made this possible was the decentralised nature of administration throughout the state. According to [[Burkina Faso|Burkinabé]] writer [[Joseph Ki-Zerbo]], the farther a person travelled from the capital, the more decentralised the ''mansa''<nowiki/>'s power became.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=fr&u=http://www.afrique-gouvernance.net/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-340.html&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=10&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DKi-Zerbo,%2BMali%2BEmpire%26hl%3Den |title=Google Translate |access-date=2009-09-16}}</ref> Nevertheless, the ''mansa'' managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating his subjects into revolt. The Malian state balanced centralization and decentralization by dividing the empire into a series of provinces and vassal states that had been either conquered or annexed, respectively. These were administered in different ways.

The Mali Empire reached its largest area under the Abubakrids, the lineage of Mansa Musa. Al-Umari, who wrote down a description of Mali based on information given to him by Abu Sa’id 'Otman ed Dukkali (who had lived 35 years in the capital), reported the realm as being square and an eight-month journey from its coast at Tura (at the mouth of the Senegal River) to Muli. Umari also describes the empire as being south of [[Marrakesh]] and almost entirely inhabited except for few places. Mali's domain also extended into the desert. He describes it as being north of Mali but under its domination implying some sort of vassalage for the Antasar, Yantar'ras, Medussa and [[Lamtuna|Lemtuna]] Berber tribes, with garrisons kept at [[Oualata]], [[Timbuktu]], [[Koumbi Saleh|Koumbi]], and [[Gao]], and responsibility of governing the Sahara given to the military commander (''sura farin'').<ref>{{harvnb|Blanchard|2001|p=1118}}.</ref><ref name="unesco" />{{rp|pages=154}}

The empire's total area included nearly all the land between the [[Sahara Desert]] and coastal forests. It spanned the modern-day countries of Senegal, southern [[Mauritania]], Mali, northern [[Burkina Faso]], western [[Niger]], [[the Gambia]], [[Guinea-Bissau]], Guinea, the [[Ivory Coast]] and northern Ghana. By 1350, the empire covered approximately {{convert|478819|sqmi|km2}}.<ref name="Conrad2009">{{cite book|author=David C. Conrad|title=Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hgrmT5wT0R4C&pg=PA116 |year=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-0319-8|page=116}}</ref>

Al-ʿUmari reported that Mali had fourteen provinces.{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=261}} His list does not necessarily accurately reflect the actual organization of the Mali Empire,{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=411}} and the identification of the listed provinces is controversial. Several of the names are spelled in a variety of ways in different manuscripts. Al-ʿUmari's list, which is quoted with slight differences by al-Qalqashandi, is as follows:

*Ghana ({{transliteration|ar|Ghāna}}): Corresponds to the former [[Ghana Empire]].
*[[Kingdom of Diarra|Zafun]] ({{transliteration|ar|Zāfūn}}): Diafunu{{sfn|Hunwick|1999b|p=94}}
*Tirafka ({{transliteration|ar|Tirafkā}}):{{efn|Variant: Tiranka ({{transliteration|ar|Tirankā}})}} Probably the same as Tiraqqa, a town on the Niger between Timbuktu and Gao mentioned by several other sources.{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=458}} Alternatively, may be Tiringa, between Kayes and Nioro, or the same as {{Smallcaps|trnqh}}, which may be [[Futa Toro]].
*[[Takrur]] ({{transliteration|ar|Takrūr}}): On 3rd cataract of the Senegal River, north of [[Jolof Empire|Jolof]]. By the 14th century, the term Takrur had become commonly misused by Arab writers.
*Sanghana ({{transliteration|ar|Sanghāna}}): A region surrounding the mouth of the Senegal river. The name of the river may be derived from the name Sanghana.{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=455}}
*{{Smallcaps|bānbʿw}} ({{langx|ar|بانبعو}}) or {{smallcaps|bānbġw}} ({{langx|ar|بانبغو}}): Possibly the [[Bambuk]] region, between the Senegal and Faleme rivers, which was a major source of gold, but identification is uncertain.{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=445}}
*Zarqatabana ({{transliteration|ar|Zarqaṭābanā}})
*{{Smallcaps|bytrā}} ({{langx|ar|بيترا}}):{{efn|Included in al-Qalqashandi's quotation of al-'Umari, but not in any manuscript of al-'Umari's text itself, which only list thirteen provinces despite saying there are fourteen.}} Possibly a typographical error for {{transliteration|ar|Banbarā}}, referring to the [[Bambara people]].{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=446}}
*Damura ({{transliteration|ar|Damūrā}})
*Zagha ({{transliteration|ar|Zāghā}}): [[Dia, Mali|Dia]]. Ruled by a sultan who was a vassal of the Mansa of Mali.{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=287}}
*Kabura ({{transliteration|ar|Kāburā}}): Along the Niger upstream of Zagha.{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|pp=287,415}} Like Zagha, ruled by a sultan who was a vassal of the Mansa of Mali. Identified with [[Diafarabé]] by Delafosse and Kaara (south of the Niger, opposite [[Kokry]]) by Bazin.{{sfn|Hunwick|1999|p=19}} Also spelled Kabara or Kabira; not to be confused with [[Kabara, Mali|Kabara]], Timbuktu's port on the Niger.
*Bawaghuri ({{transliteration|ar|Bawāghūrī}}):{{efn|Variant spellings include {{Smallcaps|brlġwry}} ({{langx|ar|برلغوري}}) and {{smallcaps|brāġwdy}} ({{langx|ar|براغودي}})}} Possibly Zagra ({{transliteration|ar|Zāgharī}}), ten days' travel south of [[Oualata|Walata]].{{sfn|Blanchard|2001|p=1119}}
*[[Gao|Kawkaw]] ({{transliteration|ar|Kawkaw}}): The city of [[Gao]], which was called Kawkaw by medieval Arabic sources. Formerly [[Gao Empire|an independent kingdom]], it was annexed into the Mali Empire by either [[Mansa Sakura]] or [[Mansa Musa]]. It later became the capital of the [[Songhai Empire]].
*Mali ({{transliteration|ar|Mālī}}): The capital province, for which the empire gets its name. Al-'Umari reports that the capital itself, located in the province of Mali, was called {{Smallcaps|byty}}.{{efn|Al-Qalqashandi quotes al-'Umari as spelling it {{transliteration|ar|banbī}}, but this is actually how al-'Umari spells the name of the royal dais, not the capital.}}

Other regions ruled by Mali included [[Beledougou]], [[Kala (province)|Kala]], [[Bendugu (province)|Bendugu]] and [[Sibiridugu]]. Al-ʿUmari also indicates that four [[Amazigh]] tribes were subjects of Mali:

*Yantaṣar or Kel Antasar: Located in the vicinity of the [[Adrar des Ifoghas]].{{sfn|Blanchard|2001|p=1118}}
*Tīn Gharās or Yantar'ras: Correspond to the modern [[Kel Gres]]. Located in the vicinity of [[Tadmekka]] in medieval times.{{sfn|Blanchard|2001|p=1118}}{{sfn|Levtzion|Hopkins|2000|p=458}}
*Madūsa: Members of the [[Sanhaja]] confederation located on the Niger between Ghana and Tadmekka.{{sfn|Blanchard|2001|p=1118}}
*[[Lamtuna|Lamtūna]]: Members of the Sanhaja confederation in the vicinity of the [[Adrar Plateau]] and [[Tagant Plateau]].{{sfn|Blanchard|2001|p=1118}}

Gomez instead suggests that these tribes would have inhabited territory in the vicinity of Mema, Ghana, and Diafunu.{{sfn|Gomez|2018|p=127}}

=== Capital location ===
The identity of the capital city of the Mali Empire is a matter of dispute among historians. Scholars have located the capital in Niani, or somewhere on the Niger, or proposed that it changed several times, that there was no true capital, or even that it lay as far afield as the upper [[Gambia River]] in modern-day [[Senegal]].{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}} Seemingly contradictory reports written by Arab visitors, a lack of definitive archaeological evidence, and the diversity of oral traditions all contribute to this uncertainty.{{sfn|Conrad|1994}} A particular challenge lies in interpreting early Arabic manuscripts, in which, without vowel markings and diacritics, foreign names can be read in numerous different ways (e.g. Biti, Buti, Yiti, Tati).{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}} [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Leo Africanus]] both call the capital "Mali."{{sfn|Hunwick|1973|p=199}}

Early European writers such as [[Maurice Delafosse]] believed that [[Niani, Guinea|Niani]], a city on what is now the border between Guinea and Mali, was the capital for most of the empire's history, and this notion has taken hold in the popular imagination.<ref>Ki-Zerbo, 57.</ref> [[Djibril Tamsir Niane]], a Guinean historian, has been a forceful advocate of this position in recent decades. The identification of Niani as imperial capital is rooted in an (possibly erroneous) interpretation of the Arab traveler al Umari's work, as well as some oral histories. Extensive archaeological digs have shown that the area was an important trade and manufacturing center in the 15th century, but no firm evidence of royal residence has come to light.{{sfn|Conrad|1994|p=369}}

Niani's reputation as an imperial capital may derive from its importance in the late imperial period, when the Songhai Empire to the northeast pushed Mali back to the Manding heartland. Several 21st century historians have firmly rejected Niani as a capital candidate based on a lack of archaeological evidence of significant trade activity, clearly described by Arab visitors, particularly during the 14th century, Mali's golden age.{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}} In fact, there is a conspicuous absence of archaeological samples of any kind from Niani dated to the late 13th through early 15th centuries, suggesting that Niani may have been uninhabited during the heyday of the Mali Empire.{{sfn|Fauvelle-Aymar|2012}}

Various sources cite several other cities as capitals of the Mali Empire, some in competition with the Niani hypothesis and others addressing different time periods. A city called Dieriba or Dioliba is sometimes mentioned as the capital or main urban center of the province of Mande in the years before Sundiata, that was later abandoned.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=128}}

Many oral histories point to a town called Dakajalan as the original home of the Keita clan and Sundiata's childhood home and base of operations during the war against the Soso. It may have been located close to modern [[Kangaba]]. Mande bards in the region speak of the Dakajalan site, containing Sundiata's grave, as sacrosanct.{{sfn|Conrad|1994|p=373}} Kangaba became the last refuge of the Keita royal family after the collapse of the Mali Empire, and so has for centuries been associated with Sundiata in the cultural imagination of Mande peoples. If Dakajalan was, in fact, situated near Kangaba, this may also have contributed to their conflation, beginning with Delafosse's speculation that the latter may have begun as a suburb of the former.{{sfn|Green|1991|p=129}}

According to Jules Vidal and Levtzion, citing oral histories from Kangaba and Keyla, another onetime capital was Manikoro or Mali-Kura, founded after the destruction of Niani.{{sfn|Green|1991|pp=128-129}}

Parallel to this debate, many scholars have argued that the Mali Empire may not have had a permanent "capital" in the sense that the word is used today, and historically was used in the Mediterranean world. Rather, authority would rest with the mansa and his court, wherever he went. Therefore,  Arabic visitors may have assigned the "capital" label merely to whatever major city the mansa was based out of at the time of their visit.{{sfn|Conrad|1994|p=365}} It has been suggested that the name given in the Arabic sources for the capital of Mali is derived the Manding word "bambi", meaning "[[dais]]", and as such refers to the "seat of government" in general rather than being the name of a specific city.{{sfn|Hunwick|1973}} Such impermanent capitals are a historically widespread phenomenon, having occurred in other parts of Africa such as [[Ethiopia]], as well as outside Africa, such as in the [[Holy Roman Empire]].{{sfn|Haour|2005}}

===Imperial Regalia===
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The Mansas of Mali used several symbols to demonstrate their power and influence. A red banner struck with a golden disc, referred to as the 'Mali djondjon' or the 'Sun Banner' of Sundiata, appears in oral histories of his coronation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kamissoko |first1=Wa |last2=Cisse |first2=Youssouf Tata |title=Soundjata: la Gloire du Mali |date=2009|url = https://shs.cairn.info/soundjata-la-gloire-du-mali--9782811102616?lang=fr|access-date = 7 October 2024|p = 53}}</ref> Written sources have Mansa Musa using a similar banner, 'with yellow symbols (''shi’ār'') on a red background', during his visit to Cairo, as well as a parasol.{{sfn|Gomez|2018|p=115}}

Ibn Battuta records the Mansa using golden and silver lances as imperial regalia. Other royal items included a ruler's cap, slippers, arrows, and bow. The material of which they were made indicated the rank of the holder: gold was the highest, and reserved for the Mansa, followed in descending order by silver, brass, iron, and wood. The rulers of [[Kaabu]] held a silver lance, for example, while the king of [[Guinala]], one of their subordinates, held a bow and arrows of iron.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buhnen |first1=Stephen |title=In Quest of Susu |journal=History in Africa |date=1994 |volume=21 |page=46}}</ref>