Editing Macedonia (ancient kingdom) (section)

==Institutions==
{{main|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}

===Division of power===
{{further|Ancient Greek law}}
[[File:Phillip Museum.jpg|thumb|The [[Vergina Sun]], the 16-ray star covering the royal burial [[larnax]] of [[Philip II of Macedon]] ({{reign|359|336|era=BC}}), discovered in the tomb of [[Vergina]], formerly ancient [[Aegae (Macedonia)|Aigai]]]]
At the head of [[Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedonia's government]] was [[List of Macedonian kings|the king]] (''[[basileus]]'').<ref group="note">Written evidence about Macedonian governmental institutions made before [[Philip II of Macedon]]'s reign is both rare and non-Macedonian in origin. The main sources of early Macedonian historiography are the works of [[Herodotus]], [[Thucydides]], [[Diodorus Siculus]], and [[Justin (historian)|Justin]]. Contemporary accounts given by those such as [[Demosthenes]] were often hostile and unreliable; even [[Aristotle]], who lived in Macedonia, provides us with terse accounts of its governing institutions. [[Polybius]] was a contemporary historian who wrote about Macedonia; later historians include [[Livy]], [[Quintus Curtius Rufus]], [[Plutarch]], and [[Arrian]]. The works of these historians affirm Macedonia's [[hereditary monarchy]] and basic institutions, yet it remains unclear if there was an established [[constitution]] for Macedonian government. See: {{harvnb|King|2010|pp=373–374}}. <br />However, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting [[Kings of Macedon|the king]] and involving a [[popular assembly]] of the army. See: {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=12–13}}. <br />The main textual primary sources for the organization of [[Ancient Macedonian army|Macedonia's military]] as it existed under Alexander the Great include Arrian, Curtis, Diodorus, and Plutarch; modern historians rely mostly on Polybius and [[Livy]] for understanding detailed aspects of [[Antigonid Macedonian army|the Antigonid-period military]]. On this, {{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=446–447}} writes: "...&nbsp;to this we can add the evidence provided by two magnificent archaeological monuments, the '[[Alexander Sarcophagus]]' in particular and the '[[Alexander Mosaic]]'...&nbsp;In the case of the [[Antigonid Macedonian army|Antigonid army]]&nbsp;... valuable additional details are occasionally supplied by [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]] and [[Plutarch]], and by a series of inscriptions preserving sections of two sets of army regulations issued by [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip V]]."</ref> From at least the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II, the king was assisted by the [[royal page]]s (''basilikoi paides''), bodyguards (''[[somatophylakes]]''), companions (''[[hetairoi]]''), friends (''[[philoi]]''), an assembly that included members of the military, and (during the Hellenistic period) [[magistrate]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=374}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=220–221}} for further details.</ref> Evidence is lacking regarding the extent to which each of these groups shared authority with the king or if their existence had a basis in a formal constitutional framework.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=374}}; for an argument about the [[absolute monarchy|absolutism]] of the Macedonian monarchy, see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=220–222}}. <br />However, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] write with apparent certainty and conviction when describing the Macedonian constitutional government restricting [[Kings of Macedon|the king]] and involving a [[popular assembly]] of the army. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=12–13}}.</ref> Before the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II, the only institution supported by textual evidence is the monarchy.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=375}}. <br />In 1931 Friedrich Granier was the first to propose that by the time of Philip&nbsp;II's reign, Macedonia had a constitutional government with laws that delegated rights and [[Uncodified constitution|customary privileges]] to certain groups, especially to its citizen soldiers, although the majority of evidence for the army's alleged right to [[Elective monarchy|appoint a new king]] and judge cases of [[treason]] stems from the reign of [[Alexander III of Macedon]]. See {{harvnb|Granier|1931|pp=4–28, 48–57}} and {{harvnb|King|2010|pp=374–375}}. <br />[[Pietro De Francisci]] was the first to refute Granier's ideas and advance the theory that the Macedonian government was an [[autocracy]] ruled by the whim of the monarch, although this issue of kingship and governance is still unresolved in academia. See: {{harvnb|de Francisci|1948|pp=345–435}} as well as {{harvnb|King|2010|p=375}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}} for further details.</ref>

===Kingship and the royal court===
The earliest known government of ancient Macedonia was that of its [[monarchy]], lasting until 167{{nbsp}}BC when it was abolished by the Romans.<ref name="king 2010 373">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=373}}.</ref> The Macedonian hereditary monarchy existed since at least the time of [[Archaic Greece]], with Homeric aristocratic roots in [[Mycenaean Greece]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=375–376}}.</ref> Thucydides wrote that in previous ages, Macedonia was divided into small tribal regions, each having its own [[petty king]], the tribes of [[Lower Macedonia]] eventually coalescing under one great king who exercised power as an [[overlord]] over the lesser kings of [[Upper Macedonia]].<ref name="king 2010 376">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=376}}.</ref> The direct line of [[Order of succession|father-to-son succession]] was broken after the assassination of [[Orestes of Macedon]] in 396{{nbsp}}BC (allegedly by his [[regent]] and successor [[Aeropus II of Macedon]]), clouding the issue of whether [[primogeniture]] was the established custom or if there was a constitutional right for an assembly of the army or [[Popular assembly|of the people]] to choose another king.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=376–377}}.</ref> It is unclear if the male offspring of Macedonian queens or [[Queen consort|consorts]] were always preferred over others given the accession of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]], son of [[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] and a [[Slavery in ancient Greece|slave woman]], although Archelaus succeeded the throne after murdering his father's designated [[heir apparent]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=377}}.</ref>

[[File:Hades abducting Persephone.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hades]] abducting [[Persephone]], fresco in the small Macedonian royal tomb at [[Vergina]], [[Macedonia, Greece]], c.{{nbsp}}340{{nbsp}}BC]]
It is known that Macedonian kings before Philip{{nbsp}}II upheld the privileges and carried out the responsibilities of hosting foreign diplomats, determining the kingdom's foreign policies, and negotiating alliances with foreign powers.<ref name="king 2010 378">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=378}}.</ref> After the Greek victory at [[Battle of Salamis|Salamis]] in 480{{nbsp}}BC, the Persian commander [[Mardonius (general)|Mardonius]] had [[Alexander I of Macedon]] sent to Athens as a chief envoy to orchestrate an alliance between the Achaemenid Empire and [[History of Athens|Athens]]. The decision to send Alexander was based on his [[Marriage of state|marriage alliance]] with a noble Persian house and his previous formal relationship with the city-state of Athens.<ref name="king 2010 378"/> With their ownership of natural resources including gold, silver, timber, and [[royal land]], the early Macedonian kings were also capable of [[Bribery|bribing]] foreign and domestic parties with impressive gifts.<ref name="king 2010 379">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=379}}.</ref>

Little is known about the [[Judiciary|judicial system]] of ancient Macedonia except that the king acted as the [[wikt:chief judge|chief judge]] of the kingdom.<ref name="errington 1990 222"/> The Macedonian kings were also [[Commander-in-chief|supreme commanders]] of the military.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=379}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=221}}; early evidence for this includes not only Alexander&nbsp;I's role as a commander in the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] but also the city-state of [[Potidaea]]'s acceptance of [[Perdiccas II of Macedon]] as their [[commander-in-chief]] [[Battle of Potidaea|during their rebellion]] against the [[Delian League]] of Athens in 432&nbsp;BC.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II was also highly regarded for his acts of piety in serving as the [[high priest]] of the nation. He performed daily [[ritual sacrifice]]s and led [[religious festival]]s.<ref name="king 2010 380">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=380}}.</ref> Alexander imitated various aspects of his father's reign, such as granting land and gifts to loyal aristocratic followers,<ref name="king 2010 380"/> but lost some core support among them for adopting some of the trappings of an Eastern, Persian monarch, a "lord and master" as Carol J. King suggests, instead of a "comrade-in-arms" as was the traditional relationship of Macedonian kings with their companions.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=380}}; for further context, see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> Alexander's father, Philip{{nbsp}}II, was perhaps influenced by Persian traditions when he adopted institutions similar to those found in the Achaemenid realm, such as having a [[Royal Secretary|royal secretary]], royal archive, royal pages, and a seated [[throne]].<ref>{{harvnb|Olbrycht|2010|pp=345–346}}.</ref>

===Royal pages===
{{multiple image
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| image2 = Framentuary votive relief representing a youth ladling wine for a krater and a round table with vases, from the Agora, end of 4th&nbsp;c.&nbsp;BC, Archaeological Museum, Pella (7065345633).jpg
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| footer = Left, the god [[Dionysos]] riding a [[cheetah]], [[mosaic]] floor in the "House of Dionysos" at [[Pella]], Greece, c.&nbsp;330–300&nbsp;BC. Right, a framentary [[Votive offering|votive]] [[relief]] depicting a youth [[Ladle (spoon)|ladling]] [[History of wine|wine]] from a ''[[krater]]'' next to a round table with vases, from the [[agora]] of [[Pella]], end of 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, [[Archaeological Museum of Pella]].
}}
The [[royal page]]s were adolescent boys and young men [[conscripted]] from aristocratic households and serving the kings of Macedonia perhaps from the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II onward, although more solid evidence dates to the reign of Alexander the Great.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|pp=403–405}}. <br />According to Carol J. King, there was no "certain reference" to this institutional group until the [[military campaigns of Alexander the Great]] in Asia.{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=380–381}}. <br />However, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] state that the [[royal page]]s are attested to as far back as the reign of [[Archelaus I of Macedon]]. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|p=13}}.</ref> Royal pages played no direct role in high politics and were conscripted as a means to introduce them to political life.<ref name="king 2010 381">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=381}}.</ref> After a period of training and service, pages were expected to become members of the king's companions and personal retinue.<ref name="Sawada 2010 403">{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|p=403}}.</ref> During their training, pages were expected to guard the king as he slept, supply him with horses, aid him in mounting his horse, accompany him on royal hunts, and serve him during ''[[symposium|symposia]]'' (i.e. formal drinking parties).<ref>{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|pp=404–405}}.</ref> Although there is little evidence for royal pages in the Antigonid period, it is known that some of them fled with [[Perseus of Macedon]] to [[Samothrace]] following [[Battle of Pydna|his defeat]] by the Romans in 168{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|p=406}}.</ref>

===Bodyguards===
Royal bodyguards served as the closest members to the king at court and on the battlefield.<ref name="king 2010 381"/> They were split into two categories: the ''[[agema]]'' of the ''[[hypaspistai]]'', a type of ancient [[special forces]] usually numbering in the hundreds, and a smaller group of men handpicked by the king either for their individual merits or to honor the noble families to which they belonged.<ref name="king 2010 381"/> Therefore, the bodyguards, limited in number and forming the king's inner circle, were not always responsible for protecting the king's life on and off the battlefield; their title and office was more a mark of distinction, perhaps used to quell rivalries between aristocratic houses.<ref name="king 2010 381"/>

===Companions, friends, councils, and assemblies===
{{further|Synedrion}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = "An der Wende vom 5. zum 4. Jahrhundert v.Chr. wurde Pella Hauptstadt des Königreichs Makedonien." 6.jpg
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| image2 = Fragmentary inscription bearing the names of 6 city archons (politarchs), 2nd c. BC, Archaeological Museum, Pella (6929923448).jpg
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| footer = Left, an [[atrium (architecture)|atrium]] with a pebble-[[mosaic]] paving, in [[Pella]], Greece. Right, a fragmentary [[inscription]] bearing the names of six city ''[[archon]]s'' (''[[politarch]]s''), 2nd&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC, [[Archaeological Museum of Pella]].
}}

The companions, including the elite [[companion cavalry]] and ''[[pezhetairoi]]'' infantry, represented a substantially larger group than the king's bodyguards.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=382}}. <br />The ranks of the companions were greatly increased during the reign of Philip&nbsp;II when he expanded this institution to include [[Upper Macedonia]]n aristocrats as well as Greeks. See: {{harvnb|Sawada|2010|p=404}}.</ref> The most trusted or highest ranking companions formed a council that served as an advisory body to the king.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|p=382}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> A small amount of evidence suggests the existence of an assembly of the army during times of war and a [[Direct democracy|people's assembly]] during times of peace.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=384}}: the first recorded instance dates to 359&nbsp;BC, when Philip&nbsp;II called together assemblies to address them with a speech and raise their morale following the death of [[Perdiccas III of Macedon]] in battle against the [[Illyria]]ns.</ref>

Members of the council had the right to speak freely, and although there is no direct evidence that they voted on affairs of state, it is clear that the king was at least occasionally pressured to agree to their demands.<ref>{{harvnb|Sawada|2010|pp=382–383}}.</ref> The assembly was apparently given the right to judge cases of [[high treason]] and [[Sentence (law)|assign punishments]] for them, such as when Alexander the Great acted as [[prosecutor]] in the trial and conviction of three alleged conspirators in his father's assassination plot (while many others [[Acquittal|were acquitted]]).<ref>{{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=5, 12}}.</ref> However, there is perhaps insufficient evidence to allow a conclusion that councils and assemblies were regularly upheld or constitutionally grounded, or that their decisions were always heeded by the king.<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=384–389}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> At the death of Alexander the Great, the companions [[Partition of Babylon|immediately formed a council]] to assume control of his empire, but it was soon destabilized by [[Wars of the Diadochi|open rivalry and conflict]] between [[Diadochi|its members]].<ref>{{harvnb|King|2010|pp=383–384}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=220}}.</ref> The army also used [[mutiny]] as a tool to achieve political ends.<ref group="note">For instance, when [[Perdiccas]] had Philip&nbsp;II's daughter [[Cynane]] murdered to prevent her own daughter [[Eurydice II of Macedon]] from marrying [[Philip III of Macedon]], the army revolted and ensured that the marriage took place. See {{harvnb|Adams|2010|p=210}} and {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=119–120}} for details.</ref>

===Magistrates, the commonwealth, local government, and allied states===
Antigonid Macedonian kings relied on various regional officials to conduct affairs of state.<ref name="king 2010 390">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=390}}.</ref> This included high-ranking municipal officials, such as the military ''[[strategos]]'' and the [[politarch]], i.e. the elected governor (''[[archon]]'') of a large city (''[[polis]]''), as well as the politico-religious office of the ''[[epistates]]''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|King|2010|p=390}}. <br />Although these were highly influential members of local and regional government, Carol J. King asserts that they were not collectively powerful enough to formally challenge the authority of the Macedonian king or his right to rule.</ref> No evidence exists about the personal backgrounds of these officials, although they may have been chosen among the same group of aristocratic ''philoi'' and ''hetairoi'' who filled vacancies for army officers.<ref name="errington 1990 222">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=222}}.</ref>

{{multiple image| align = left | direction = horizontal | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = Left, a silver [[tetradrachm]] issued by the city of [[Amphipolis]] in 364–363 BC (before its conquest by [[Philip II of Macedon]] in 357 BC), showing the head of [[Apollo]] on the [[obverse]] and [[Olympic flame|racing torch]] on the reverse. Right, a golden [[stater]] depicting Philip II, [[Mint (facility)|minted]] at Amphipolis in 340&nbsp;BC (or later during Alexander's reign), shortly after its conquest by Philip&nbsp;II and incorporation into the [[Koinon of Macedonians|Macedonian commonwealth]]| footer_align = left | image1 = Tetradrachm, 364-363 BC, Amphipolis.jpg | width1 = 280 | caption1  = | image2 = Anfipoli, statere di filippo II, 340 o 336-328 ac ca.JPG | width2 = 150| caption2  = }}
In [[ancient Athens]], the [[Athenian democracy]] was restored on three separate occasions following the initial conquest of the city by Antipater in 322{{nbsp}}BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Amemiya|2007|pp=11–12}}.</ref> When it fell repeatedly under Macedonian rule it was governed by a Macedonian-imposed [[oligarchy]] composed of the wealthiest members of the city-state.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Amemiya|2007|pp=11–12}}: under [[Antipater]]'s oligarchy, the lower value in terms of property for acceptable members of the oligarchy was 2,000 ''[[Ancient drachma|drachma]]''. [[Athenian democracy]] was restored briefly after Antipater's death in 319&nbsp;BC, yet his son [[Cassander]] reconquered the city, which came under the regency of [[Demetrius of Phalerum]]. Demetrius lowered the property limit for oligarchic members to 1,000 ''drachma'', yet by 307&nbsp;BC he was exiled from the city and [[direct democracy]] was restored. [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] reconquered Athens in 295&nbsp;BC, yet democracy was once again restored in 287&nbsp;BC with the aid of [[Ptolemy I of Egypt]]. [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], son of Demetrius&nbsp;I, reconquered Athens in 260&nbsp;BC, followed by a succession of Macedonian kings ruling over Athens until the [[Roman Republic]] conquered both Macedonia and then [[mainland Greece]] by 146&nbsp;BC.</ref> Other city-states were handled quite differently and were allowed a greater degree of [[autonomy]].<ref name="errington 1990 231"/> After Philip{{nbsp}}II conquered Amphipolis in 357{{nbsp}}BC, the city was allowed to retain its [[democracy]], including its constitution, [[popular assembly]], [[city council]] (''[[Boule (ancient Greece)|boule]]''), and yearly [[election]]s for new officials, but a Macedonian garrison was housed within the city walls along with a Macedonian royal commissioner (''epistates'') to monitor the city's political affairs.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=229–230}}.</ref> [[Philippi]], the city founded by Philip{{nbsp}}II, was the only other city in the Macedonian [[commonwealth]] that had a democratic government with popular assemblies, since the assembly (''[[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|ecclesia]]'') of [[Thessaloniki]] seems to have had only a passive function in practice.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=230}}.</ref> Some cities also maintained their own municipal [[revenue]]s.<ref name="errington 1990 231">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=231}}.</ref> The Macedonian king and central government administered the revenues generated by [[Greek temple|temples]] and [[priesthood]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=231–232}}.</ref>

Within the [[Koinon of Macedonians|Macedonian commonwealth]], some evidence from the 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC indicates that foreign relations were handled by the central government. Although individual Macedonian cities nominally participated in [[Panhellenic]] events as independent entities, in reality, the granting of ''[[asylia]]'' (inviolability, [[diplomatic immunity]], and the [[right of asylum]] at [[sanctuaries]]) to certain cities was handled directly by the king.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=365–366}}.</ref> Likewise, the city-states within contemporary Greek ''[[Koinon|koina]]'' (i.e., [[federation]]s of city-states, the ''[[sympoliteia]]'') obeyed the federal decrees [[vote]]d on collectively by the members of their league.<ref group="note">Unlike the sparse Macedonian examples, ample textual evidence of this exists for the [[Achaean League]], [[Acarnanian League]], and [[Achaean League]]; see {{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=366–367}}.</ref> In city-states belonging to a league or commonwealth, the granting of ''[[proxenia]]'' (i.e. the hosting of foreign ambassadors) was usually a right shared by local and central authorities.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=366–367}}.</ref> Abundant evidence exists for the granting of ''proxenia'' as being the sole [[prerogative]] of central authorities in the neighboring [[Epirote League]], and some evidence suggests the same arrangement in the Macedonian commonwealth.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=367–369}}.</ref> City-states that were [[Alliance|allied]] with Macedonia issued their own decrees regarding ''proxenia''.<ref>{{harvnb|Hatzopoulos|1996|pp=368–369}}.</ref> Foreign leagues also formed alliances with the Macedonian kings, such as when the [[Cretan League]] signed treaties with [[Demetrius II Aetolicus]] and [[Antigonus III Doson]] ensuring enlistment of Cretan mercenaries into the Macedonian army, and elected [[Philip V of Macedon]] as honorary protector (''[[prostates]]'') of the league.<ref name="errington 1990 242">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=242}}.</ref>

===Military===
{{main|Ancient Macedonian army|Antigonid Macedonian army}}
{{further|Hellenistic armies|Macedonian phalanx}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Macedonian Army Pezetairos.jpg
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| image2 = Македонски штит од Бонче.jpg
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| footer = Left, a Macedonian infantryman, possibly a [[hypaspist]], equipped with an ''[[aspis]]'' shield and wearing a [[linothorax]] cuirass and [[Thracian helmet]]; [[bas relief]] from the [[Alexander Sarcophagus]], 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC. Right, an ancient Macedonian bronze [[shield]] excavated from the archaeological site at [[Bonče]] in [[North Macedonia]], dated 4th&nbsp;century&nbsp;BC.
}}

====Early Macedonian army====
{{further|Government of Macedonia (ancient kingdom)}}
The basic structure of the [[Ancient Macedonian army]] was the division between the companion cavalry (''[[hetairoi]]'') and the foot companions (''[[pezhetairoi]]''), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=447}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=243–244}}.</ref> The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of [[Alexander I of Macedon]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=447–448}}.</ref> Macedonian cavalry, wearing [[muscled cuirass]]es, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the [[Peloponnesian War]], at times siding with either Athens or Sparta.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=448–449}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238–239}} for further details.</ref> Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238–239; 243–244}}.</ref> As evidenced by early 4th century BC artwork, there was a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip{{nbsp}}II.<ref name="sekunda 2010 449">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=449}}.</ref> Nicholas Viktor Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip{{nbsp}}II's reign in 359{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry,<ref name="sekunda 2010 448 449">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=448–449}}.</ref> yet Malcolm Errington cautions that these figures cited by ancient authors should be treated with some skepticism.<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=239–240}}.</ref>

====Philip II and Alexander the Great====
{{further|Military tactics in Ancient Greece|Thessalian cavalry}}

After spending years as a political hostage in Thebes, Philip{{nbsp}}II sought to imitate the Greek example of [[Military exercise|martial exercises]] and the issuing of [[Ancient Greek military personal equipment|standard equipment]] for citizen soldiery, and succeeded in transforming the Macedonian army from a levied force of unprofessional farmers into a well-trained, [[professional army]].<ref name="errington 1990 238">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=238, 247}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II adopted some of the [[military tactics]] of his enemies, such as the ''[[embolon]]'' (flying wedge) cavalry formation of the [[Scythia]]ns.<ref name="sekunda 2010 451">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}.</ref> His infantry wielded ''peltai'' shields that replaced the earlier ''[[aspis]]''-style shields, were equipped with [[Greek helmet (disambiguation)|protective helmets]]<!--intentional link to DAB page-->, [[greave]]s, and either [[cuirass]]es [[breastplate]]s or ''[[kotthybos]]'' stomach bands, and armed with ''[[sarissa]]'' [[Pike (weapon)|pikes]] and  [[dagger]]s as  secondary weapons.<ref group="note">According to Sekunda, Philip&nbsp;II's infantry were eventually equipped with heavier armor such as cuirasses, since the ''[[Third Philippic]]'' of [[Demosthenes]] in 341&nbsp;BC described them as [[hoplite]]s instead of lighter [[peltast]]s: {{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=449–450}}; see also {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=238}} for further details. <br />However, Errington argues that breastplates were not worn by the [[phalanx]] [[pikemen]] of either Philip&nbsp;II or Philip&nbsp;V's reigns (during which sufficient evidence exists). Instead, he claims that breastplates were worn only by [[military officer]]s, while pikemen wore the ''[[kotthybos]]'' stomach bands along with their helmets and greaves, wielding a daggers as  secondary weapons along with their shields. See {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=241}}.</ref> The elite ''[[hypaspistai]]'' infantry, composed of handpicked men from the ranks of the ''pezhetairoi'', were formed during the reign of Philip{{nbsp}}II and saw continued use during the reign of Alexander the Great.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=450}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=244}}.</ref> Philip{{nbsp}}II was also responsible for the establishment of the royal bodyguards (''[[somatophylakes]]'').<ref name="sekunda 2010 452">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=452}}.</ref>
{{multiple image| align = left | direction = vertical | header = | header_align = left/right/center | footer = An ancient fresco of Macedonian soldiers from the tomb of [[Agios Athanasios, Thessaloniki]], Greece, 4th century BC | footer_align = left | image1 = Agios Athanasios 1 fresco.jpg | width1 = 220 | caption1  = | image2 = Agios-Athanasios.jpg | width2 = 220| caption2  = }}

For his lighter missile troops, Philip II employed mercenary [[Cretan archers]] as well as Thracian, Paeonian, and Illyrian [[javelin]] throwers, [[Sling (weapon)|slingers]], and archers.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=241–242}}.</ref> He hired engineers such as [[Polyidus of Thessaly]] and [[Diades of Pella]], who were capable of building [[state of the art]] [[siege engine]]s and [[artillery]] that fired large [[Crossbow bolt|bolts]].<ref name="sekunda 2010 451"/> Following the acquisition of the lucrative mines at [[Krinides]] (renamed [[Philippi]]), the royal treasury could afford to field a permanent, professional [[standing army]].<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=449–451}}.</ref> The increase in state revenues under Philip{{nbsp}}II allowed the Macedonians to build a small navy for the first time, which included [[trireme]]s.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=451}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=247–248}}; {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=24–26}}.</ref>

The only Macedonian cavalry units attested under Alexander were the companion cavalry,<ref name="sekunda 2010 452"/> yet he formed a ''[[Hipparchus (cavalry officer)|hipparchia]]'' (i.e. unit of a few hundred horsemen) of companion cavalry composed entirely of ethnic [[Persian people|Persians]] while campaigning in Asia.<ref name="sekunda 2010 453">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=453}}.</ref> When marching his forces into Asia, Alexander brought 1,800 cavalrymen from Macedonia, 1,800 [[Thessalian cavalry|cavalrymen from Thessaly]], 600 cavalrymen from the rest of Greece, and 900 ''[[prodromoi]]'' cavalry from [[Thrace]].<ref name="sekunda 2010 454">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=454}}.</ref> Antipater was able to quickly raise a force of 600 native Macedonian cavalry to fight in the [[Lamian War]] when it began in 323{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="sekunda 2010 454"/> The most elite members of Alexander's ''hypaspistai'' were designated as the ''[[agema]]'', and a new term for ''hypaspistai'' emerged after the [[Battle of Gaugamela]] in 331{{nbsp}}BC: the ''[[argyraspides]]'' (silver shields).<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=455}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}.</ref> The latter continued to serve after the reign of Alexander the Great and may have been of Asian origin.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=455–456}}. <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: in regards to both the ''[[argyraspides]]'' and ''[[chalkaspides]]'', "these titles were probably not functional, perhaps not even official."</ref> Overall, his pike-wielding phalanx infantry numbered some 12,000 men, 3,000 of which were elite ''hypaspistai'' and 9,000 of which were ''pezhetairoi''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=455–457}}. <br />However, in discussing the discrepancies among [[List of Greek historiographers|ancient historians]] about the size of [[Alexander the Great]]'s army, [[N. G. L. Hammond]] and [[F. W. Walbank]] choose [[Diodorus Siculus]]' figure of 32,000 infantry as the most reliable, while disagreeing with his figure for cavalry at 4,500, asserting it was closer to 5,100 horsemen. {{harvnb|Hammond|Walbank|2001|pp=22–23}}.</ref> Alexander continued the use of Cretan archers and introduced native Macedonian archers into the army.<ref name="sekunda 2010 458 459"/> After the Battle of Gaugamela, archers of West Asian backgrounds became commonplace.<ref name="sekunda 2010 458 459">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=458–459}}.</ref>

====Antigonid period military====
[[File:Thueros affresco.jpg|thumb|upright|Fresco of an ancient Macedonian soldier (''[[thorakitai|thorakites]]'') wearing [[chainmail]] armor and bearing a [[thureos]] shield, 3rd century{{nbsp}}BC, [[İstanbul Archaeology Museums]]]]
[[Antigonid Macedonian army|The Macedonian army]] continued to evolve under the [[Antigonid dynasty]]. It is uncertain how many men were appointed as ''somatophylakes'', which numbered eight men at the end of Alexander the Great's reign, while the ''hypaspistai'' seem to have morphed into assistants of the ''somatophylakes''.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=459}}; {{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: "Other developments in Macedonian army organization are evident after [[Alexander the Great|Alexander]]. One is the evolution of the ''[[hypaspistai]]'' from an elite unit to a form of [[military police]] or [[bodyguard]] under [[Philip V of Macedon|Philip&nbsp;V]]; the only thing the two functions had in common was the particular closeness to the king."</ref> At the [[Battle of Cynoscephalae]] in 197{{nbsp}}BC, the Macedonians commanded some 16,000 phalanx pikemen.<ref name="sekunda 2010 461">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=461}}.</ref> Alexander the Great's royal squadron of companion cavalry contained 800 men, the same number of cavalrymen in the sacred squadron ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''sacra ala''; [[Greek language|Greek]]: ''hiera ile'') commanded by [[Philip V of Macedon]] during the [[Social War (220–217 BC)|Social War]] of 219{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="sekunda 2010 460">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=460}}.</ref> The regular Macedonian cavalry numbered 3,000 at Callinicus, which was separate from the sacred squadron and royal cavalry.<ref name="sekunda 2010 460"/> While Macedonian cavalry of the 4th century BC had fought without shields, the use of shields by cavalry was adopted from the [[Celtic settlement of Eastern Europe|Celtic invaders]] of the 270s BC who settled in [[Galatia]], central Anatolia.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=469}}</ref>

Thanks to [[Military Decree of Amphipolis|contemporary inscriptions]] from Amphipolis and Greia dated 218 and 181{{nbsp}}BC, respectively, historians have been able to partially piece together the organization of the Antigonid army under Philip{{nbsp}}V.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=460–461}}; for the evolution of Macedonian military titles, such as its command by ''tetrarchai'' officers assisted by ''grammateis'' (i.e. secretaries or clerks), see {{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=242–243}}.</ref> From at least the time of [[Antigonus III Doson]], the most elite Antigonid-period infantry were the [[peltast]]s, lighter and more maneuverable soldiers wielding ''peltai'' [[javelin]]s, swords, and a smaller bronze shield than [[Macedonian phalanx]] pikemen, although they sometimes served in that capacity.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=461–462}}; <br />{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=245}}: "The other development, which happened at the latest under [[Antigonus III Doson|Doson]], was the formation and training of a special unit of ''[[peltast]]ai'' separate from the [[Macedonian phalanx|phalanx]]. This unit operated as a form of [[royal guard]] similar in function to the earlier ''[[hypaspistai]]''."</ref> Among the peltasts, roughly 2,000 men were selected to serve in the elite ''agema'' [[vanguard]], with other peltasts numbering roughly 3,000.<ref name="sekunda 2010 462">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=462}}.</ref> The number of peltasts varied over time, perhaps never more than 5,000 men.<ref group="note">{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|p=463}}; the largest figure for elite Macedonian [[peltast]]s mentioned by ancient historians was 5,000 troops, an amount that existed in the [[Social War (220–217 BC)]].</ref> They fought alongside the phalanx pikemen, divided now into ''[[chalkaspides]]'' (bronze shield) and ''[[leukaspides]]'' (white shield) regiments.<ref>{{harvnb|Sekunda|2010|pp=463–464}}.</ref>

The Antigonid Macedonian kings continued to expand and equip [[Ancient navies and vessels|the navy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Errington|1990|pp=247–248}}.</ref> [[Cassander]] maintained [[Hellenistic-era warships|a small fleet]] at [[Pydna]], [[Demetrius I of Macedon]] had one at Pella, and [[Antigonus II Gonatas]], while serving as a general for Demetrius in Greece, used the navy to secure the Macedonian holdings in [[Demetrias]], [[Chalkis]], [[Piraeus]], and [[Corinth]].<ref name="errington 1990 248">{{harvnb|Errington|1990|p=248}}.</ref> The navy was considerably expanded during the [[Chremonidean War]] (267–261{{nbsp}}BC), allowing the Macedonian navy to defeat the Ptolemaic Egyptian navy at the 255{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Cos]] and 245{{nbsp}}BC [[Battle of Andros (246 BC)|Battle of Andros]], and enabling Macedonian influence to spread over the [[Cyclades]].<ref name="errington 1990 248"/> Antigonus{{nbsp}}III Doson used the Macedonian navy to invade [[Caria]], while Philip{{nbsp}}V sent 200 ships to fight in the [[Battle of Chios (201 BC)|Battle of Chios]] in 201{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="errington 1990 248"/> The Macedonian navy was reduced to a mere six vessels as agreed in the 197{{nbsp}}BC [[peace treaty]] that concluded the [[Second Macedonian War]] with the [[Roman Republic]], although [[Perseus of Macedon]] quickly assembled some ''[[lemboi]]'' at the outbreak of the [[Third Macedonian War]] in 171{{nbsp}}BC.<ref name="errington 1990 248"/>