Editing La Tène culture (section)

===Technology===

The La Tène period saw a vast increase in iron production, with huge quantities and varieties of iron objects becoming common on all types of settlements.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 17: Ironworking in the Celtic world}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 10: The First Towns}}</ref> According to Collis (2010), "iron industry and coin use were more advanced than in the Mediterranean, and indicate indigenous changes."<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 10: The First Towns}}</ref> By the second century BC, 200 distinct types of iron tools were in common use, serving a wide range of purposes.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 12: Resources and Industry}}</ref> Iron nails used in the production of [[Murus gallicus|''Murus Gallicus'']] were mass-produced in enormous quantities. The [[oppidum of Manching]] is estimated to have used used many tons of nails just in the construction of its outer wall.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 17: Ironworking in the Celtic world}}</ref> The production of [[high-carbon steel]] is also attested from c. 500 BC.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2014 |title=East Lothian's Broxmouth fort reveals edge of steel |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-edinburgh-east-fife-25734877 |website=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 17: Ironworking in the Celtic world}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Skóra |first1=Kalina |display-authors=etal |date=2019 |title=Weaponry of the Przeworsk Culture in the light of metallographic examinations. The case of the cemetery in Raczkowice |url=https://www.academia.edu/76153774/Weaponry_of_the_Przeworsk_Culture_in_the_Light_of_Metallographic_Examinations_The_Case_of_the_Cemetery_in_Raczkowice |journal=Praehistorische Zeitschrift |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=1–45 |doi=10.1515/pz-2019-0016 |quote=In Pre-Roman Period Europe one can see a strong diversification of sword blade technologies. There are many low quality blades made from iron or low-carbon steel; on the other hand, one also encounters artefacts made partially or entirely from high-carbon steel.}}</ref> By the 1st century BC [[Noric steel]] was famous for its quality and was sought-after by the [[Roman military]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Presslinger |first1=Hubert |display-authors=etal |date=2005 |title=Norican Steel - An Assessment of the Archaeological Finds at the Magdalensberg Site, Carinthia, Compared to the “Celtic Trove” of Gründberg Hill, Linz |url=https://www.academia.edu/80083255/Norican_Steel_An_Assessment_of_the_Archaeological_Finds_at_the_Magdalensberg_Site_Carinthia_Compared_to_the_Celtic_Trove_of_Gr%C3%BCndberg_Hill_Linz |journal=Steel Research International |volume=76 |issue=9}}</ref>

Technological developments by Celtic craftsmen in this period include the invention of shrunk-on [[Tire|iron tyres]] for wagons and chariots, <ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Selected_Writings_on_Chariots_and_Other/6JO0PkRqpCsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&printsec=frontcover |title=Selected Writings on Chariots, other Early Vehicles, Riding and Harness |date=2002 |editor-last1=Littauer |editor-first1=M.A. |display-authors=etal |publisher=Leiden |pages=324 |quote=the sweated-on iron tyre is considered to be the invention of Celtic wheelwrights in the La Tene period.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world|last1=Piggot|first1=Stuart|date=1995|title=The Celtic World|editor-last=Green|editor-first=Miranda|publisher=Routledge|chapter=Wood and the Wheelwright|pages=325|isbn=9781135632434 }}</ref> the creation of wagons with [[Front axle|front-axel steering]], and the incorporation of [[Rolling-element bearing|roller-bearings]] within wheel hubs.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |pages=Chapter 21}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KxTHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6&lpg=PA6&dq=dejbjerg%20wagon%20roller%20bearings&source=bl&ots=WKV1jEu7FA&sig=ACfU3U2MHGWlTA6mxDg5DE-9R6P0BIIYiQ&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwj45eXNmtHvAhX0RhUIHVXDBDs4ChDoATACegQIARAD#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Motor Car: Past, Present and Future |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |last1=Genta |first1=Giancarlo |pages=6 |quote=The Dejbjerg wagon ... is the first example of a wagon with steering on the front axle, but it can be considered as an articulated vehicle made by two chariots … it incorporated other interesting features, such as wooden roller bearings in the hubs.}}</ref> In the 1st century BC the Greek historian [[Diodorus Siculus]] noted that "In their journeyings and when they go into battle the Gauls use chariots drawn by two horses."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/5B*.html |title=Library of History, Book 5, Chapter 29 |first=Diodorus |last=Siculus |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

According to Julius Caesar trade with the [[British Isles]] was dominated by the [[Veneti (Gaul)|Veneti]] from [[Armorica]],<ref name=":2" /> who commanded "a very great number of ships", which he describes as follows: 

{{quote| The ships were built wholly of oak, and designed to endure any force and violence whatever; the benches which were made of planks a foot in breadth, were fastened by iron spikes of the thickness of a man's thumb; the anchors were secured fast by iron chains instead of cables, and for sails they used skins and thin dressed leather.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://classics.mit.edu/Caesar/gallic.3.3.html |title=The Gallic Wars By Julius Caesar, Book 3, Chapter 13 |website=classics.mit.edu}}</ref>}} 

Close similarities have been noted between Caesar's description and shipwrecks discovered at [[Blackfriars shipwrecks|Blackfriars]] in [[London]] (dating from the 2nd century AD) and at [[Saint Peter Port|St Peter Port]] in [[Guernsey]] (dating from the 3rd century AD), which have been described as [[Gallo-Roman culture|Romano-Celtic]] ships built according to a native Celtic tradition, distinct from that of the Mediterranean.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite journal |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1095-9270.1995.tb00723.x |journal=The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology |volume=24 |issue=2 |date=1995 |title=Romano-Celtic boats and ships: characteristic features |last=McGrail |first=Sean |doi=10.1111/j.1095-9270.1995.tb00723.x |pages=139-145}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://museums.gov.gg/romanship |title=Gallo-Roman Ship
|website=Guernsey Museums and Galleries}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://mass.cultureelerfgoed.nl/blackfriars-ship-1 |title=Blackfriars Ship 1 |website=mass.cultureelerfgoed.nl}}</ref> McGrail (1995) suggests that the frame-first construction process of these ships represents a specific Celtic ship-building innovation.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415146272 |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |last=McGrail |first=Sean|chapter=15: Celtic seafaring and transport}}</ref>

Wooden [[Barrel|barrels]] bound with metal hoops were also invented by Celtic craftsmen during the La Tène period<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |chapter=Chapter 18: Wood and the Wheelwright}}</ref> and gradually replaced the use of [[Amphora|amphorae]] within the Roman empire from the 2nd century AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/wine/amphorae.html |title=Encyclopedia Romana:Amphora |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref>

The 3rd century BC saw the development of iron [[chain mail]], the invention of which is credited to Celtic armourers by the Roman author [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=vkV8bcgLbiAC&q=the+celtic+world&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=The Celtic World |editor-last1=Green |editor-first1=Miranda |publisher=Routledge |date=1995 |isbn=9780415146272 |pages=Chapter 4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=HscIwvtkq2UC&pg=PA79&dq=laminar%20armor&hl=en&ei=nOMGTqrNNfGv0AGWpbi6Cw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&redir_esc=y#v%3Donepage%26q%26f%3Dtrue |title=Soldiers' Lives Through History - The Ancient World |date=2006 |publisher=Bloomsbury |last=Gabriel |first=Richard A. |pages=79 |quote=The third century BC saw the introduction of iron chain mail invented by the Celts, whose iron craft was much more advanced that the Romans and probably the best in Europe. Chain mail was constructed of thousands of small iron circles linked together to form an iron mesh shirt … Once the Romans adopted the Celtic chain mail armor for their troops, the mail shirt remained the basic armor of the Roman infantryman until the first century CE.}}</ref> Celtic helmet designs also served as the basis for the design of Roman [[Imperial helmet|imperial helmets]] following Caesar's campaigns in Gaul.<ref>{{cite book |last=Elliott |first=Simon |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lMnXDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28&lpg=PT28&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Roman Legionaries: Soldiers of Empire |date=2018 |publisher=Casemate Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.academia.edu/1195498/The_Arms_of_the_Romans |title=The Arms of the Romans |date=2002 |publisher=Tempus Publishers |last=Feugère |first=Michel}}</ref> The ''[[spatha]], a'' long sword of Celtic design, was introduced to the Romans by [[Celts|Celtic mercenaries]] and [[Auxilia|auxilaries]], gradually becoming a standard [[heavy infantry]] weapon within the Roman army by the 2nd century AD and replacing the earlier ''[[gladius]]''.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Bishop |first=M.C |title=The Spatha: The Roman Long Sword |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2020 |isbn=978-147-283-240-5}}</ref>

The 1st century Roman author [[Pliny the Elder]] attributed the invention of [[soap]] and [[Mattress|mattresses]] to the Gauls.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D28 |title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Plin. Nat. 28.51 |website=perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Aabo%3Aphi%2C0978%2C001%3A8%3A73 |title=Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Plin. Nat. 8.73 |website=perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> The 2nd century Greek physician [[Aretaeus of Cappadocia]] also attributed the invention of soap to the Gauls.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=XCMwAAAAYAAJ&printsec=frontcover&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Ἀρεταίου Καππαδόκου Τὰ Σωζόμενα |last=Aretaeus of Cappadocia |publisher=Sydenham Society |pages=496}}</ref>

At the site of the {{ill|oppidum of Paule|fr|Forteresse de Paule}} in [[Brittany]] the remains of a wooden structure thought to be a 'machine for drawing water' incorporating a [[Connecting rod|crank and connecting-rod mechanism]] were discovered at the bottom of a well, dating from 68-27 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bibracte.fr/ressource/machine-hydraulique-copie |title=Machine hydraulique |website=Bibracte Museum}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://patrimoine.lamayenne.fr/jublains/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2016_DP_Exposition_Premieres_villes_gauloises_Jublains.pdf |title=L’exposition « Les Premières Villes de l’ouest » |website=patrimoine.lamayenne.fr}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://patrimoine.lamayenne.fr/jublains/expositions/les-premieres-villes-de-louest/ |title=Les Premières villes de l'Ouest |website=patrimoine.lamayenne.fr}}</ref> This is the earliest known evidence for such a mechanism, which is also known from later Roman machines.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://patrimoine.lamayenne.fr/jublains/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/2016_DP_Exposition_Premieres_villes_gauloises_Jublains.pdf |title=L’exposition « Les Premières Villes de l’ouest » |website=patrimoine.lamayenne.fr}}</ref>

In his account of the siege of [[Avaricum]] during the Gallic War, Julius Caesar writes:

{{blockquote |To the extraordinary valor of our soldiers, devices of every sort were opposed by the Gauls; since they are a nation of consummate ingenuity, and most skillful in imitating and making those things which are imparted by any one; for they turned aside the hooks with nooses, and when they had caught hold of them firmly, drew them on by means of engines, and undermined the mound the more skillfully on this account, because there are in their territories extensive iron mines, and consequently every description of mining operations is known and practiced by them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0001%3Abook%3D7%3Achapter%3D22 |title=C. Julius Caesar, Gallic War, 7.22 |website=perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref>}}