Editing Kenesaw Mountain Landis (section)

== Baseball commissioner (1920–1944) ==

=== Appointment ===

==== Black Sox scandal ====

{{main article|Black Sox scandal}}

By 1919, the influence of gamblers on baseball had been a problem for several years. Historian Paul Gardner wrote,

<blockquote>
Baseball had for some time been living uneasily in the knowledge that bribes were being offered by gamblers, and that some players were accepting them. The players knew it was going on, and the owners knew it was going on. But more important, the players knew that the owners knew — and they knew the owners were doing nothing about it for fear of a scandal that might damage organized baseball. Under such conditions it quite obviously did not pay to be honest.{{r|Gardner 1975}}
</blockquote>

[[File:Eight men banned.png|upright=1.4|thumb|The eight "Chicago Black Sox"]]

The [[1919 World Series]] between the [[Chicago White Sox]] and [[Cincinnati Reds]] was much anticipated as the nation attempted to return to normalcy in the postwar period. Baseball's popularity had surged during the 1919 season, and  several MLB attendance records were set. The powerful White Sox, with their superstar batter [[Shoeless Joe Jackson|"Shoeless Joe" Jackson]] and star pitchers [[Eddie Cicotte]] and [[Lefty Williams|Claude "Lefty" Williams]], were believed likely to defeat the less-well-regarded Reds. To the surprise of many, the Reds beat the White Sox five games to three (from 1919 to 1921, the World Series was a best-of-nine affair).{{sfn|Carney|pp=17–21}}

Rumors that the series was fixed began to circulate after gambling odds against the Reds winning dropped sharply before the series began and gained more credibility after the White Sox lost four of the first five games. Cincinnati lost the next two games, and speculation began that the Reds were losing on purpose to extend the series and increase gate revenues. However, Cincinnati won Game Eight 10–5 to end the series, as Williams lost his third game (Cicotte lost the other two).{{sfn|Carney|pp=19–21}} After the series, according to Gene Carney, who wrote a book about the scandal, "there was more than the usual complaining from those who had bet big on the Sox and lost".{{sfn|Carney|p=22}}

The issue of the 1919 Series came to the public eye again in September 1920 after allegations that a game between the [[Chicago Cubs]] and [[Philadelphia Phillies]] on August 31 had been fixed, and a grand jury was empaneled in state court in Chicago to investigate baseball gambling. Additional news came from Philadelphia, where gambler [[Billy Maharg]] stated that he had worked with former boxer [[Abe Attell]] and New York gambler [[Arnold Rothstein]] to get the White Sox to throw the 1919 Series. Cicotte and Jackson were called before the grand jury where they gave statements incriminating themselves and six teammates: Williams, first baseman [[Chick Gandil]], shortstop [[Swede Risberg]], third baseman [[Buck Weaver]], center fielder [[Happy Felsch]] and reserve infielder [[Fred McMullin]]. Williams and Felsch were also called before the grand jury and incriminated themselves and their teammates.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=160}} Through late September, the 1920 American League season had been one of the most exciting on record, with the White Sox, [[Cleveland Indians]] and [[New York Yankees]] dueling for the league lead. By September 28, the Yankees were close to elimination, but the White Sox and Indians were within percentage points of each other. On that day, however, the eight players, seven of whom were still on the White Sox, were indicted. They were immediately suspended by White Sox owner [[Charles Comiskey]].{{sfn|Cottrell|pp=221–223}} The Indians were able to pull ahead and win the pennant, taking the American League championship by two games over Chicago.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=227}}

==== Search for a commissioner ====

[[File:Landis is hired.jpg|thumb|Landis, surrounded by baseball owners and officials, signs an agreement to be Commissioner of Baseball, November 12, 1920.]]

Baseball had been governed by a three-man [[National Baseball Commission|National Commission]], consisting of American League President [[Ban Johnson]], National League President [[John Heydler]] and Cincinnati Reds owner [[Garry Herrmann]]. In January 1920, Herrmann left office at the request of other club owners, leaving the Commission effectively deadlocked between Johnson and Heydler. A number of club owners, disliking one or both league presidents, preferred a single commissioner to rule over the game, but were willing to see the National Commission continue if Herrmann was replaced by someone who would provide strong leadership. Landis's name was mentioned in the press for this role, and the influential baseball newspaper ''[[The Sporting News]]'' sought his appointment.{{sfn|Spink|pp=54–55}}

Another proposal, known as the "Lasker Plan" after [[Albert Lasker]], a shareholder in the Chicago Cubs who had proposed it, was for a three-man commission to govern the game, drawn from outside baseball. On September 30, 1920, with the Black Sox scandal exposed, National League President Heydler began to advocate for the Lasker Plan, and by the following day, four major league teams had supported him. Among the names discussed in the press for membership on the new commission were Landis, former [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|secretary of the treasury]] [[William Gibbs McAdoo]], former president [[William Howard Taft]], and General [[John J. Pershing]].{{sfn|Cottrell|pp=236–237}}

The start of the [[1920 World Series]] on October 5 distracted the public from baseball's woes for a time, but discussions continued behind the scenes. By mid-October, 11 of the 16 team owners (all eight from the National League and the owners of the American League Yankees, White Sox and [[Boston Red Sox]]) were demanding the end of the National Commission and the appointment of a three-man commission whose members would have no financial interest in baseball.{{sfn|Cottrell|pp=239}} Heydler stated his views on baseball's requirements:

<blockquote>
We want a man as chairman who will rule with an iron hand&nbsp;... Baseball has lacked a hand like that for years. It needs it now worse than ever. Therefore, it is our object to appoint a big man to lead the new commission.{{sfn|Cottrell|pp=239–240}}
</blockquote>

On November 8, the owners of the eight National League and three American League teams which supported the Lasker Plan met and unanimously selected Landis as head of the proposed commission. The American League clubs that supported the plan threatened to move to the National League, away from Johnson, who opposed it. Johnson had hoped that the [[minor leagues]] would support his position; when they did not, he and the "Loyal Five" teams agreed to the Lasker Plan.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=243}} In the discussions among the owners that followed, they decided that Landis would be the only commissioner–no associate members would be elected.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=169}} On November 12, the team owners came to Landis's courtroom to approach him. Landis was trying a bribery case; when he heard noise in the back of the courtroom from the owners, he gaveled them to silence.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=244}} He made them wait 45&nbsp;minutes while he completed his [[docket (court)|docket]], then met with them in his chambers.<ref>{{cite news  |title=Landis The 'Big Umpire'  |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1920/11/13/page/1/article/landis-the-big-umpire |newspaper=[[Chicago Tribune]]  |date=November 13, 1920 |page=1}}</ref>{{r|NYHT obit}}

The judge heard out the owners; after expressing initial reluctance, he took the job for seven years at a salary of $50,000, on condition he could remain on the federal bench. During Landis's time serving as both judge and commissioner, he allowed a $7,500 reduction in his commissioner salary, to reflect his pay as judge. The appointment of Landis was met with acclaim in the press.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=244}} A tentative agreement was signed by the parties a month later—an agreement which itemized Landis's powers over baseball, and which was drafted by the judge.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=247}} The owners were still reeling from the perception that baseball was crooked, and accepted the agreement virtually without dissent.<ref name="bllandis">{{cite web|url=https://baseballbiography.com/kenesaw-mountain-landis |title=Kenesaw Mountain Landis |publisher=Baseball Biography |access-date=December 26, 2007 }}</ref> Under the terms of the contract, Landis could not be dismissed by the team owners, have his pay reduced, or even be criticized by them in public.{{r|smith}} He also had nearly unlimited authority over every person employed in the major or minor leagues, from owners to [[batboy]]s, including the ability to ban people from the leagues for life. The owners waived any recourse to the courts to contest Landis's will. Humorist [[Will Rogers]] stated, "<nowiki>[D]</nowiki>on't kid yourself that that old judicial bird isn't going to make those baseball birds walk the chalkline".{{sfn|Spink|pp=74–75}} Player and manager [[Leo Durocher]] later stated, "The legend has been spread that the owners hired the Judge off the federal bench. Don't you believe it. They got him right out of [[Charles Dickens bibliography|Dickens]]."{{r|smith}}

=== Establishing control ===

==== Banning the Black Sox ====

[[File:Still Black Sox.png|upright=1.6|thumb|A 1921 cartoon shows Landis unimpressed by the acquittals in the "Black Sox" trial.]]

On January 30, 1921, Landis, speaking at an Illinois church, warned:

<blockquote>
Now that I am in baseball, just watch the game I play. If I catch any crook in baseball, the rest of his life is going to be a pretty hot one. I'll go to any means and to anything possible to see that he gets a real penalty for his offense.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=251}}
</blockquote>

The criminal case against the Black Sox defendants suffered unexpected setbacks, with evidence vanishing, including some of the incriminating statements made to the grand jury.{{sfn|Spink|p=80}} The prosecution was forced to dismiss the original indictments, and bring new charges against seven of the ballplayers (McMullin was not charged again). Frustrated by the delays, Landis placed all eight on an "[[List of people banned from Major League Baseball|ineligible list]]", banning them from major and minor league baseball. Comiskey supported Landis by giving the seven who remained under contract to the White Sox their unconditional release. Public sentiment was heavily against the ballplayers, and when Jackson, Williams, Felsch, and Weaver played in a [[semi-professional|semi-pro]] game, ''The Sporting News'' mocked the 3,000 attendees, "Just Like Nuts Go to See a Murderer".{{sfn|Cottrell|pp=252–253}}

The criminal trial of the Black Sox indictees began in early July 1921. Despite what Robert C. Cottrell, in his book on the scandal, terms "the mysterious loss of evidence", the prosecution was determined to pursue the case, demanding five-year prison terms for the ballplayers for defrauding the public by throwing the series. On August 2, 1921, the jury returned not guilty verdicts against all defendants, leading to happy pandemonium in the courtroom, joined by the courtroom bailiffs, with even the trial judge, [[Hugo Friend]], looking visibly pleased.{{sfn|Cottrell|pp=258–259}} The players and jury retired to an Italian restaurant and partied well into the night.{{sfn|Spink|p=82}}

The jubilation proved short-lived. On August 3, Landis issued a statement:

<blockquote>
Regardless of the verdict of juries, no player that throws a ball game; no player that undertakes or promises to throw a ball game; no player that sits in a conference with a bunch of crooked players and gamblers where the ways and means of throwing ball games are planned and discussed and does not promptly tell his club about it, will ever play professional baseball. Of course, I don't know that any of these men will apply for reinstatement, but if they do, the above are at least a few of the rules that will be enforced. Just keep in mind that, regardless of the verdict of juries, baseball is competent to protect itself against crooks, both inside and outside the game.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=260}}
</blockquote>

According to [[ESPN]] columnist [[Rob Neyer]], "with that single decision, Landis might have done more for the sport than anyone else, ever. Certainly, Landis never did anything more important."{{r|neyer}} According to Carney, "The public amputation of the eight Sox was seen as the only acceptable cure."{{sfn|Carney|p=214}} Over the years of Landis's commissionership, a number of the players applied for reinstatement to the game, notably Jackson and Weaver. Jackson, raised in rural South Carolina and with limited education, was said to have been drawn unwillingly into the conspiracy, while Weaver, though admitting his presence at the meetings, stated that he took no money. Both men stated that their play on the field, and their batting percentages during the series (.375 for Jackson, .324 for Weaver) indicated that they did not help to throw the series. None was reinstated during their lifetimes, with Landis telling a group of Weaver supporters that his presence at the meetings with the gamblers was sufficient to bar him.{{sfn|Spink|pp=82–83}} 

Efforts continued after the death of Landis in 1944 to reinstate Jackson (which would make him eligible for election to the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]]) and Weaver (deemed by some the least culpable of the eight), even after the deaths of both former players. In the 1990s, a petition drive to reinstate Jackson drew 60,000&nbsp;signatures. He was treated sympathetically in movies such as ''[[Eight Men Out]]'' and ''[[Field of Dreams]]'', and Hall of Famers [[Ted Williams]] and [[Bob Feller]] expressed their support for Jackson's induction into the Hall. In 2025, Commissioner [[Rob Manfred]] announced that players would be removed from the ineligible list upon their deaths and lifted all extant bans on deceased players, including the Black Sox.{{sfn|Nathan|pp=190–192}}<ref name=ESPN25>{{cite web |last=Van Natta Jr.|first=Don|title=Pete Rose, 'Shoeless' Joe Jackson among players reinstated by MLB|url=https://www.espn.com/mlb/story/_/id/45115659/pete-rose-shoeless-joe-jackson-players-reinstated-mlb|website=[[ESPN]]|date=May 13, 2025|access-date=May 13, 2025}}</ref>

==== Cracking down on gambling ====

[[File:Landis opens 1921 season.png|thumb|Commissioner Landis opens the 1921 baseball season.]]

Landis felt that the Black Sox scandal had been initiated by people involved in horse racing, and stated that "by God, as long as I have anything to do with this game, they'll never get another hold on it."{{sfn|Spink|p=83}} In 1921, his first season as commissioner, [[New York Giants (NL)|New York Giants]] owner [[Charles Stoneham]] and manager [[John McGraw]] purchased [[Oriental Park Racetrack]] in [[Havana, Cuba]]. Landis gave Stoneham and McGraw an ultimatum—they could not be involved in both baseball and horse racing. They quickly put the track back on the market.{{sfn|Spink|pp=83–84}}

Even before the Black Sox scandal had been resolved, Landis acted to clean up other gambling cases. [[Eugene Paulette]], a first baseman for the [[Philadelphia Phillies]], had been with the [[St. Louis Cardinals]] in 1919, and had met with gamblers. It is uncertain if any games were fixed, but Paulette had written a letter naming two other Cardinals who might be open to throwing games. The letter had fallen into the hands of Phillies president [[William F. Baker (baseball owner)|William F. Baker]], who had taken no action until Landis's appointment, then turned the letter over to him. Paulette met with Landis once, denying any wrongdoing, then refused further meetings. Landis placed him on the ineligible list in March 1921.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=177–178}} In November 1921, Landis banned former [[St. Louis Browns]] player [[Joe Gedeon]], who had been released by the Browns after admitting to sitting in on meetings with gamblers who were trying to raise the money to bribe the Black Sox. When a minor league official asked if he was eligible, Landis settled the matter by placing Gedeon on the ineligible list.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=191–192}}

Two other player gambling affairs marked Landis's early years as commissioner. In 1922, Giants pitcher [[Phil Douglas (baseball)|Phil Douglas]], embittered at McGraw for disciplining him for heavy drinking, wrote a letter to Cardinals outfielder [[Les Mann|Leslie Mann]], suggesting that he would take a bribe to ensure the Giants did not win the pennant.{{sfn|Spink|p=103}} Although Mann had been a friend, the outfielder neither smoked nor drank and had long been associated with the [[YMCA]] movement; according to baseball historian [[Lee Allen (baseball)|Lee Allen]], Douglas might as well have sent the letter to Landis himself. Mann immediately turned over the letter to his manager, [[Branch Rickey]], who ordered Mann to contact Landis at once. The Giants placed Douglas on the ineligible list, an action backed by Landis after meeting with the pitcher.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=244–247}} On September 27, 1924, Giants outfielder [[Jimmy O'Connell (baseball)|Jimmy O'Connell]] offered Phillies shortstop [[Heinie Sand]] $500 if Sand didn't "bear down too hard against us today".{{sfn|Spink|p=117}} Sand was initially inclined to let the matter pass, but recalling the fate of Weaver and other Black Sox players, told [[Art Fletcher]], his manager. Fletcher met with Heydler, who contacted Landis. O'Connell did not deny the bribe attempt, and was placed on the ineligible list.{{sfn|Spink|pp=117–120}}

In total, Landis banned eighteen players from the game.{{r|James 2003}} Landis biographer Pietrusza details the effect of Landis's stand against gambling:

<blockquote>
Before 1920 if one player approached another player to throw a contest, there was a very good chance he would not be informed upon. Now, there was an excellent chance he would be turned in. No honest player wanted to meet the same fate as Buck Weaver&nbsp;... Without the forbidding example of Buck Weaver to haunt them, it is unlikely Mann and Sand would have snitched on their fellow players. After Landis' unforgiving treatment of the popular and basically honest Weaver they dared not to. And once prospectively crooked players knew that honest players would no longer shield them, ''the scandals stopped''.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=194}}
</blockquote>

==== Ruth-Meusel barnstorming incident ====

[[File:Landis Ruth Meusel.png|thumb|Landis pictured with [[Babe Ruth]] (left) and [[Bob Meusel]] after turning down their requests for early reinstatement, Yankees spring training camp, New Orleans, March 1922]]

At the time of Landis's appointment as commissioner, it was common for professional baseball players to supplement their pay by participating in postseason "[[barnstorm (sports)|barnstorming]]" tours, playing on teams which would visit smaller cities and towns to play games for which admission would be charged. Since 1911, however, players on the two World Series teams had been barred from barnstorming.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=229–230}} The rule had been leniently enforced—in 1916, several members of the champion Red Sox, including pitcher [[Babe Ruth|George Herman "Babe" Ruth]], had barnstormed and had been fined a token $100 each by the National Commission.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=229–230}}

Ruth, who after the 1919 season had been sold to the Yankees, and who by then had mostly abandoned his pitching role for the outfield, was the focus of considerable fan interest as he broke batting records in 1920 and 1921, some by huge margins. Ruth's major league record 29&nbsp;home runs with the Red Sox in 1919 fell to his own efforts in 1920, when he hit 54. He then proceeded to hit 59 in 1921, leading the Yankees to their first pennant. Eight major league teams failed to hit as many home runs in 1921 as Ruth hit by himself. The Yankees lost the [[1921 World Series]] to the Giants (Ruth was injured and missed several games) and after the series, the outfielder proposed to capitalize on fan interest by leading a team of barnstormers, including Yankees teammate [[Bob Meusel]], in violation of the rule.{{sfn|Spink|pp=95–96}} According to Cottrell,

<blockquote>
<nowiki>[T]</nowiki>he two men clashed who helped the national pastime overcome the Black Sox scandal, one through his seemingly iron will, the other thanks to his magical bat. Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis and Babe Ruth battled over the right of a ballplayer from a pennant-winning squad to barnstorm in the off-season. Also involved was the commissioner's continued determination to display, as he had through his banishment of the Black Sox, that he had established the boundaries for organized baseball. These boundaries, Landis intended to demonstrate, applied even to the sport's most popular and greatest star. Significant too, only Babe Ruth now contended with Commissioner Landis for the title of baseball's most important figure.{{sfn|Cottrell|p=263}}
</blockquote>

Ruth had asked Yankees general manager [[Ed Barrow]] for permission to barnstorm. Barrow had no objection but warned Ruth he must obtain Landis's consent.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=231}} Landis biographer Spink, who was at the time the editor of ''The Sporting News'', stated, "I can say that Ruth knew exactly what he was doing when he defied Landis in October, 1921. He was willing to back his own popularity and well-known drawing powers against the Judge."{{sfn|Spink|p=97}} Ruth, to the commissioner's irritation, did not contact Landis until October 15, one day before the first exhibition. When the two spoke by telephone, Landis ordered Ruth to attend a meeting with him; Ruth refused, stating that he had to leave for [[Buffalo, New York|Buffalo]] for the first game. Landis angrily refused consent for Ruth to barnstorm, and after slamming down the receiver, is recorded as saying, "Who the hell does that big ape think he is? That blankety-blank! If he goes on that trip it will be one of the sorriest things he has ever done."{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=231–232}} By one account, Yankees co-owner [[Tillinghast L'Hommedieu Huston|Colonel Tillinghast Huston]] attempted to dissuade Ruth as he departed, only to be told by the ballplayer, "Aw, tell the old guy to jump in a lake."{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=232}}

The tour also featured fellow Yankees Meusel and [[Bill Piercy]] (who had been called up late in the season and was ineligible for the World Series) as well as [[Tom Sheehan]], who had been sent to the minor leagues before the end of the season. Two other Yankees, [[Carl Mays]] and [[Wally Schang]], had been scheduled to join the tour, but given Landis's position, according to Spink, "wisely decided to pass it up".{{sfn|Spink|p=98}} Spink describes the tour as "a fiasco."{{sfn|Spink|p=98}} On Landis's orders, it was barred from all major and minor league ballparks. In addition, it was plagued by poor weather, and was called off in late October. In early December, Landis suspended Ruth, Piercy, and Meusel until May 20, 1922.{{sfn|Spink|p=98}} Yankees management was relieved; they had feared Landis would suspend Ruth for the season or even longer. Both the Yankees and Ruth repeatedly asked Landis for the players' early reinstatement, which was refused, and when Landis visited the Yankees during spring training in New Orleans, he lectured Ruth for two hours on obeying authority. "He sure can talk", noted Ruth.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=238–239}}

When Ruth returned on May 20, he batted 0-for-4, and was booed by the crowd at the [[Polo Grounds]]. According to Pietrusza, "Always a politician, there was one boss Landis did fear: public opinion. He had no guarantee at the start of the Ruth controversy that the public and press would back him as he assumed unprecedented powers over baseball. Now, he knew they would."{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=240}}

=== Policies as commissioner ===

==== Major-minor league relations; development of the farm system ====

[[File:Landis first ball.jpg|upright|thumb|Landis throws out the first pitch, 1924.]]

At the start of Landis's commissionership, the minor league teams were for the most part autonomous of the major leagues; in fact the minor leagues independently chose to accept Landis's rule.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=347}} To ensure players did not become mired in the minor leagues without a chance to earn their way out, major league teams were able to draft players who played two consecutive years with the same minor league team.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=350}} Several minor leagues were not subject to the draft; Landis fought for the inclusion of these leagues, feeling that the non-draft leagues could prevent players from advancing as they became more skilled. By 1924, he had succeeded, as the [[International League]], the final holdout, accepted the draft.{{sfn|Spink|p=127}}

By the mid-1920s, major league clubs were beginning to develop "farm systems", that is, minor league teams owned or controlled by them, at which they could develop young prospects without the risk of the players being acquired by major league rivals. The pioneer in this development was [[Branch Rickey]], who then ran the St. Louis Cardinals.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=347}} As the 1921 National Agreement among the major and minor leagues which implemented Landis's hiring lifted a ban on major league teams owning minor league ones, Landis was limited in his avenues of attack on Rickey's schemes. Developing talent at little cost thanks to Rickey, the Cardinals dominated the National League, winning nine league titles in the years from 1926 to 1946.{{sfn|Abrams|p=99}}

Soon after Landis's appointment, he surprised the major league owners by requiring that they disclose their minor league interests. Landis fought against the practice of "covering up", using transfers between two teams controlled by the same major league team to make players ineligible for the draft. His first formal act as commissioner was to declare infielder [[Phil Todt]] a free agent, dissolving his contract with the [[St. Louis Browns]] (at the time run by Rickey, who soon thereafter moved across town to run the Cardinals); in 1928, he ruled future Hall of Famer [[Chuck Klein]] a free agent as he held the Cardinals had tried to cover Klein up by having him play in a league where they owned two affiliates.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=347}} The following year, he freed [[Detroit Tigers]] prospect and future Hall of Famer [[Rick Ferrell]], who attracted a significant signing bonus from the Browns.{{sfn|Spink|p=166}} In 1936, Landis found that teenage pitching prospect [[Bob Feller]]'s signing by minor league club [[Fargo-Moorhead Twins|Fargo-Moorhead]] had been a charade; the young pitcher was for all intents and purposes property of the Cleveland Indians. However, Feller indicated that he wanted to play for Cleveland and Landis issued a ruling which required the Indians to pay damages to minor league clubs, but allowed them to retain Feller, who went on to a Hall of Fame career with the Indians.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=351–358}}

Landis's attempts to crack down on "covering up" provoked the only time he was ever sued by one of his owners. After the 1930 season, minor leaguer [[Fred Bennett (baseball)|Fred Bennett]], convinced he was being covered up by the Browns, petitioned Landis for his release. Landis ruled that the Browns could either keep Bennett on their roster for the entire 1931 season, trade him, or release him. Instead, Browns owner [[Phil Ball (baseball)|Phil Ball]] brought suit against Landis in his old court in Chicago.{{r|lind}} Federal judge [[Walter C. Lindley]] ruled for Landis, noting that the agreements and rules were intended to "endow the Commissioner with all the attributes of a benevolent but absolute despot and all the disciplinary powers of the proverbial ''[[pater familias]]''".{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=350}} Ball intended to appeal, but after a meeting between team owners and Landis in which the commissioner reminded owners of their agreement not to sue, decided to drop the case.{{r|lind}}

Landis had hoped that the large Cardinals farm system would become economically unfeasible; when it proved successful for the Cardinals, he had tolerated it for several years and was in a poor position to abolish it. In 1938, however, finding that the Cardinals effectively controlled multiple teams in the same league (a practice disliked by Landis), he freed 70&nbsp;players from their farm system. As few of the players were likely prospects for the major leagues, Landis's actions generated headlines, but had little effect on the Cardinals organization, and the development of the modern farm system, whereby each major league club has several minor league teams which it uses to develop talent, proceeded apace.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=362–366}} [[Rob Neyer]] describes Landis's effort as "a noble effort in a good cause, but it was also doomed to fail."{{r|neyer}}

==== Baseball color line ====
One of the most controversial aspects of Landis's commissionership is the question of race. From 1884, black ballplayers were informally banned from organized baseball. No black ballplayer played in organized baseball during Landis's commissionership; Rickey (then running the [[Brooklyn Dodgers]]) broke the color line by signing [[Jackie Robinson]] to play for the minor league [[Montreal Royals]] in 1946, after Landis's death. Robinson became the first African-American in the major leagues since the 19th century, playing with the Dodgers beginning in 1947.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=viii, 405}}

According to contemporary newspaper columns, at the time of his appointment as commissioner, Landis was considered a liberal on race questions; two Chicago African-American newspapers defended him against the 1921 efforts to impeach him from his judgeship.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=411–412}} However, a number of baseball authors have ascribed racism to Landis, who they say actively perpetuated baseball's color line.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=406}} James Bankes, in ''The Pittsburgh Crawfords'', tracing the history of [[Pittsburgh Crawfords|that Negro league team]], states that Landis, whom the author suggests was a Southerner (Landis was born in Ohio and raised in Indiana),{{importance inline|date=January 2024}}<!-- The "suggestion" is called that as in the source, A.B. Chandler, Landis's successor, is referred to as "another Southerner", implying Landis was from the South. --> made "little effort to disguise his racial prejudice during 25&nbsp;years in office" and "remained a steadfast foe of integration".{{r|Bankes 2001}} Negro league historian John Holway incorrectly termed Landis "the hard-bitten Carolinian {{sic}} Kennesaw {{sic}} Mountain Landis".{{r|Holway 1975}} In a 2000 article in [[Smithsonian (magazine)|''Smithsonian'' magazine]], writer Bruce Watson states that Landis "upheld baseball's unwritten ban on black players and did nothing to push owners toward integration".{{r|smith}} A number of authors say that Landis banned major league play against black teams for fear the white teams would lose, though they ascribe various dates for this action, and the Dodgers are known to have played black teams in and around their Havana spring training base as late as 1942.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=413–414}}

Landis's documented actions on race are inconsistent. In 1938, Yankee [[Jake Powell]] was interviewed by a radio station, and when asked what he did in the offseason, made comments that were interpreted as meaning he worked as a police officer and beat up African Americans. Landis suspended Powell for ten days.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=414–415}} In June 1942, the Negro league [[Kansas City Monarchs]] played several games against the white "[[Dizzy Dean]] All-Stars" at major league ballparks, attracting large crowds. After three games, all won by the Monarchs, Landis ordered a fourth canceled, on the ground that the games were outdrawing major league contests.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=417}} On one occasion, Landis intervened in Negro league affairs, though he had no jurisdiction to do so. The Crawfords lost a game to a white semi-pro team when their star catcher [[Josh Gibson]] dropped a pop fly, and Gibson was accused of throwing the game at the behest of gamblers. Landis summoned the black catcher to his office, interviewed him, and announced that Gibson was cleared of wrongdoing.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=429}}

In July 1942, Dodgers manager [[Leo Durocher]] charged that there was a "grapevine understanding" keeping blacks out of baseball.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=417}} He was summoned to Landis's Chicago office, and after emerging from a meeting with the commissioner, alleged that he had been misquoted.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=417}} Landis then addressed the press, and stated,

<blockquote>
Negroes are not barred from organized baseball by the commissioner and never have been in the 21&nbsp;years I have served. There is no rule in organized baseball prohibiting their participation and never has been to my knowledge. If Durocher, or if any other manager, or all of them, want to sign one, or twenty-five Negro players, it is all right with me. That is the business of the managers and the club owners. The business of the commissioner is to interpret the rules of baseball, and to enforce them.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=418}}
</blockquote>

In his 1961 memoir, ''Veeck as in Wreck'', longtime baseball executive and owner [[Bill Veeck]] told of his plan, in 1942, to buy the Phillies and stock the team with Negro league stars. Veeck wrote that he told Landis, who reacted with shock, and soon moved to block the purchase. In his book, Veeck placed some of the blame on National League president [[Ford C. Frick]], but later reserved blame exclusively for Landis, whom he accused of racism, stating in a subsequent interview, "<nowiki>[a]</nowiki>fter all, a man who is named Kenesaw Mountain was not born and raised in the state of Maine."{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=420–423}} However, when Veeck was asked for proof of his allegations against Landis, he stated, "I have no proof of that. I can only surmise."{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=420–423}} According to baseball historian David Jordan, "Veeck, nothing if not a storyteller, seems to have added these embellishments, sticking in some guys in black hats, simply to juice up his tale."{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=420–423}}

In November 1943, Landis agreed after some persuasion that black sportswriter [[Sam Lacy]] should make a case for integration of organized baseball before the owners' annual meeting. Instead of Lacy attending the meeting, actor [[Paul Robeson]] did. Robeson, though a noted black actor and advocate of civil rights, was a controversial figure for his affiliation with the [[Communist Party USA|Communist Party]]. The owners heard Robeson out, but at Landis's suggestion, did not ask him any questions or begin any discussion with him.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=425–426}}

Neyer noted that "Landis has been blamed for delaying the integration of the major leagues, but the truth is that the owners didn't want black players in the majors any more than Landis did. And it's not likely that, even if Landis hadn't died in 1944, he could have prevented Branch Rickey from bringing Jackie Robinson to the National League in 1947."{{r|neyer}} The [[Baseball Writers' Association of America]] after Landis's death in 1944 renamed its [[MLB Most Valuable Player Award|Most Valuable Player Awards]] after Landis,{{sfn|Spink|p=246}} but removed his name in 2020 with a vote of 89 percent of voting members in favor. The president of the association said Landis had "notably failed to integrate the game during his tenure".<ref name = "later">{{cite news|last=Perry|first=Dayn|title=Kenesaw Mountain Landis' name to be removed from MLB MVP awards|work=CBS Sports|date=October 2, 2020|access-date=October 3, 2020|url=https://www.cbssports.com/mlb/news/kenesaw-mountain-landis-name-to-be-removed-from-mlb-mvp-awards/}}</ref>

C.C. Johnson Spink, son of Landis biographer [[J.G. Taylor Spink]] and his successor as editor of ''The Sporting News'', noted in the introduction to the reissue of his father's biography of Landis,

<blockquote>
K.M. Landis was quite human and not infallible. If, for example, he did drag his feet at erasing baseball's color line, he was grievously wrong, but then so were many others of his post-Civil War generation.{{sfn|Spink|p=10}}
</blockquote>

==== World Series and All-Star Game; other innovations ====

[[File:Landis and Ruppert.jpg|thumb|Landis with New York Yankees owner [[Jacob Ruppert]] (standing), 1923]]

Landis took full jurisdiction over the World Series, as a contest between representatives of the two major leagues.{{sfn|Creamer|p=245}} Landis was blamed when the umpires called a game on account of darkness with the score tied during the [[1922 World Series]], even though there was still light. Landis decided that such decisions in future would be made by himself, moved forward the starting time of World Series games in future years, and announced that proceeds from the tied game would be donated to charity.{{sfn|Spink|pp=105–106}} In the [[1932 World Series]], Landis ordered that tickets for Game One at [[Yankee Stadium (1923)|Yankee Stadium]] only be sold as part of strips, forcing fans to purchase tickets for all Yankee home games during that Series. Bad weather and the poor economy resulted in a half-filled stadium, and Landis allowed individual game sales for Game Two.{{sfn|Spink|pp=173–174}} During the [[1933 World Series]], he instituted a rule that only he could throw a player out of a World Series game, a rule which followed the ejection of [[Washington Senators (1901–60)|Washington Senator]] [[Heinie Manush]] by umpire [[Charley Moran]].{{sfn|Spink|p=179}} [[1934 World Series|The following year]], with the visiting Cardinals ahead of the [[Detroit Tigers]], 9–0 in Game Seven, he removed Cardinal [[Joe Medwick]] from the game for his own safety when Medwick, the left fielder, was pelted with fruit by Tiger fans after Medwick had been involved in a fight with one of the Tigers. Spink notes that Landis would most likely not have done so were the game within reach of the Tigers.{{sfn|Spink|pp=180–181}} In the [[1938 World Series]], umpire Moran was hit by a wild throw and suffered facial injuries. He was able to continue, but the incident caused Landis to order that World Series games and [[Major League Baseball All-Star Game|All-Star Games]] be played with six umpires.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=345–346}}

[[File:Landis at 1937 All-Star Game.jpg|thumb|left|Landis at the 1937 All-Star Game, [[Griffith Stadium]], Washington, D.C.]]

The All-Star Game began in 1933; Landis had been a strong supporter of the proposal for such a contest, and after [[1933 Major League Baseball All-Star Game|the first game]] remarked, "That's a grand show, and it should be continued."{{sfn|Spink|p=179}} He never missed an All-Star Game in his lifetime; his final public appearance was at the [[1944 Major League Baseball All-Star Game|1944 All-Star Game]] in Pittsburgh.{{sfn|Spink|p=179}}

In 1928, National League ball clubs proposed an innovation whereby each team's pitcher, usually the weakest hitter in the lineup, would not bat, but be replaced for the purposes of batting and base-running by a tenth player. There were expectations that at the interleague meetings that year, the National League teams would vote for it, and the American League teams against it, leaving Landis to cast the deciding vote. The proposal was withdrawn, and Landis did not disclose how he would have voted on this early version of the "[[designated hitter]]" rule.{{sfn|Spink|pp=163–164}}{{importance inline|date=January 2024}}

Landis disliked the innovation of "night baseball", played in the evening with the aid of artificial light, and sought to discourage it. Despite this, he attended the first successful minor league night game, in [[Des Moines, Iowa]], in 1930.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=388–389}} When major league night baseball began in the late 1930s, Landis got the owners to restrict the number of such games. During World War II, many restrictions on night baseball were reduced, with the [[Washington Senators (1901–60)|Washington Senators]] permitted to play all their home games (except those on Sundays and holidays) at night.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=434}}

=== World War II, death, and legacy ===

[[File:Roosevelt letter to Landis.jpg|upright|thumb|Roosevelt's letter to Landis, January 15, 1942]]

With the entry of the United States into World War II in late 1941, Landis wrote to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], inquiring as to the wartime status of baseball. The President urged Landis to keep baseball open, foreseeing that even those fully engaged in war work would benefit from such inexpensive diversions.{{sfn|Spink|p=235}} Many major leaguers enlisted or were drafted; even so Landis repeatedly stated, "We'll play as long as we can put nine men on the field." Although many of the teams practiced at their normal spring training sites in 1942, beginning the following year they were required to train near their home cities or in the Northeast.{{sfn|Spink|p=236}} Landis was as virulently opposed to the [[Axis Powers]] as he had been towards the Kaiser, writing that peace would not be possible until "about fifteen thousand little Hitler<!-- yes, singular! -->, Himmlers and Hirohitos" were killed.{{sfn|Pietrusza|p=436}}

Landis retained a firm hold on baseball despite his advancing years and, in 1943, banned Phillies owner [[William D. Cox]] from baseball for betting on his own team. In 1927, Landis's stance regarding gambling had been codified in the rules of baseball: "Any player, umpire, or club or league official or employee who shall bet any sum whatsoever upon any baseball game in connection with which the bettor had a duty to perform shall be declared permanently ineligible."{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=438–444}} Cox was required to sell his stake in the Phillies.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=438–444}}

[[File:Grave of Kenesaw Mountain Landis (1866–1944) at Oak Woods Cemetery, Chicago.jpg|thumb|right|Landis's grave at Oak Woods Cemetery]]

In early October 1944, Landis checked into St. Luke's Hospital in Chicago, where his wife Winifred had been hospitalized, with a severe cold. While in the hospital, he had a heart attack, causing him to miss [[1944 World Series|the World Series]] for the first time in his commissionership. He remained fully alert, and as usual signed the World Series share checks to players. His contract was due to expire in January 1946; on November 17, 1944, baseball's owners voted him another seven-year term. However, he died on November 25. His longtime assistant, [[Leslie O'Connor]], wept as he read the announcement for the press.{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=449–451}} Landis is buried at [[Oak Woods Cemetery]] in Chicago.

Two weeks after his death, Landis was voted into the [[National Baseball Hall of Fame]] by [[1944 Baseball Hall of Fame balloting|a special committee vote]].{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=449–451}} American League president [[Will Harridge]] said of Landis, "He was a wonderful man. His great qualities and downright simplicity impressed themselves deeply on all who knew him."{{sfn|Spink|p=244}} Pietrusza suggests that the legend on Landis's Hall of Fame plaque is his true legacy: "His integrity and leadership established baseball in the esteem, respect, and affection of the American people."{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=451–452}} Pietrusza notes that Landis was hired by the baseball owners to clean up the sport, and "no one could deny Kenesaw Mountain Landis had accomplished what he had been hired to do".{{sfn|Pietrusza|pp=451–452}} According to his first biographer, Spink:

<blockquote>
<nowiki>[Landis]</nowiki> may have been arbitrary, self-willed and even unfair, but he 'called 'em as he saw 'em' and he turned over to his successor and the future a game cleansed of the nasty spots which followed World War I. Kenesaw Mountain Landis put the fear of God into weak characters who might otherwise have been inclined to violate their trust. And for that, I, as a lifelong lover of baseball, am eternally grateful.{{sfn|Spink|p=246}}
</blockquote>

{{-}}