Editing Irene of Athens (section)

==Relations with the Carolingian Empire==
{{Main|Carolingian Empire|problem of two emperors}}
[[File:Karl den store krons av leo III.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Refusing to recognize Irene's claim to be Roman Emperor, [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Charlemagne]] as ''Emperor of the Romans''.]]
Irene's unprecedented position as an empress ruling in her own right was emphasized by the coincidental rise of the [[Carolingian Empire]] in [[Western Europe]], which rivaled Irene's Byzantium in size and power.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=31–33}} In 773, [[Charlemagne]] invaded [[Italy]], annexing the [[Kingdom of the Lombards]], in order to neutralize a threat to his succession in the form of his late brother [[Carloman I]]'s wife and sons, who fled to the Lombard court in [[Pavia]] when Charlemagne seized his kingdom.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}} He also campaigned against the Saxon tribes in northern Germany for more than thirty years, annexing their territory and compelling them to convert to Christianity, and defeated the [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]] in [[Central Europe]].{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=326–327}} In what is known as the [[Carolingian Renaissance]], Charlemagne increasingly modelled his rule after that of the Roman emperors, sponsoring construction programs in conscious imitation of Roman and Byzantine architecture, as well as intellectual and artistic revival in general.{{sfn|Contreni|1984|pp=59, 63}} His father [[Pepin the Short]] had reformed the currency and standardized weights, tightening royal control over mints.{{sfn|Allen|2009}}

As early as 781, Irene began to seek a closer relationship with the [[Carolingian dynasty]] and the [[Papacy]] in Rome, and Charlemagne's conquest of [[Pavia]] had allowed for renewed relations with the Byzantines. Through the eunuch Elissaeus, Irene negotiated a marriage between her son Constantine and [[Rotrude]], a daughter of [[Charlemagne]] by his third wife [[Hildegard, wife of Charlemagne|Hildegard]].{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}} During this time Charlemagne was at war with the [[Saxons]], and would later become the new king of the Franks.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}} Irene went as far as to send an official to instruct the [[Franks|Frankish]] princess in the "language and literature of the Greeks and [...] in Roman imperial ways", according to Theophanes.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|p=191}} According to Charlemagne's biographer [[Einhard]], he could not bear to lose his daughter and broke off the engagement. However, it is also possible that the new Frankish-Byzantine border, along with the oscillating allegiance of the powerful [[Duchy of Benevento]], soured relations.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=415}}

In 787, [[Pope Adrian I]] informed Charlemagne of reports of Byzantine invasion to restore [[Adalgis]], the deposed Lombard king, with the support of Benevento, and drive the [[Franks]] from Italy. The invasion began in 788, but the Duke of Benevento sided with the Franks and defeated the Byzantines in [[Calabria]]. [[Alcuin of York]] claimed that 4,000 Byzantines were killed and 1,000 captured, including Patriarch [[Tarasios of Constantinople|Tarasios]]' brother, Sisinnius. The defeat led to a breakdown of Frankish-Byzantine relations.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=416}} In 798, Irene diplomatically secured the return of Sisinnius.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=292}}

From 797, Irene once again attempted to normalize relations with the Franks, and a Byzantine legation arrived in the Frankish court in 798. However, on Christmas Day, 800, Charlemagne was crowned emperor by [[Pope Leo III]]. The clergy and nobles attending the ceremony proclaimed Charlemagne ''Augustus''. In support of Charlemagne's coronation, some argued that the imperial position was actually vacant, deeming a woman unfit to be emperor; however, Charlemagne made no claim to the Eastern Roman Empire. Whether he actually desired a coronation at all remains controversial—Einhard related that Charlemagne had been surprised by the Pope—but the Eastern Empire felt its role as the sole [[Roman Empire]] threatened and began to emphasize its superiority and its Roman identity.{{sfn|Nelson|2019|pp=380–385}} In 802, there were reports of a possible Frankish invasion of Sicily, to which Irene responded by sending a legation under the ''[[spatharios]]'' Leo. However, the campaign was abandoned and the Franks resumed marriage negotiations with the Byzantines.{{sfn|Brubaker|Haldon|2011|p=293}}

Relations between the two empires remained difficult. The coronation was viewed by the Byzantines as merely another Italian usurpation against imperial authority. Rather than opting for a military response, Irene maintained her contacts and endeavored to bring about a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, which was reciprocated to some degree by his court. However, as reported by [[Theophanes the Confessor]], the scheme was frustrated by [[Aetios (eunuch)|Aetios]], eunuch and favorite of Irene, who was attempting to usurp her on behalf of his brother Leo.{{sfn|Garland|1999|p=89}} The discussions proved fruitless by the time Irene was overthrown, and Charlemagne remained resolute in his imperial ambitions.{{sfn|McCormick|2008|p=417}}{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}