Editing History of Yemen (section)

== Modern history ==
{{See also|Modern history of Yemen}}

=== The Zaydis and Ottomans ===
{{See also|Yemen Eyalet|Yemeni–Ottoman Conflicts|Yemeni Zaidi State}}[[File:Jemen1988-153 hg.jpg|thumb|[[al-Bakiriyya Mosque|Al Bakiriyya Ottoman Mosque]] in [[Sana'a]], was built in 1597]]
The Ottomans had two fundamental interests to safeguard in Yemen: The Islamic holy cities of [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]] and the trade route with India in spices and textiles, both of which were threatened and the latter virtually eclipsed by the arrival of the Portuguese in the Indian Ocean and the [[Red Sea]] in the early part of the 16th century.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=2 }}</ref> [[Hadım Suleiman Pasha]], the Ottoman governor of [[Eyalet of Egypt|Egypt]], was ordered to command a fleet of 90 ships to conquer Yemen. The country was in a state of incessant anarchy and discord as Hadım Suleiman Pasha described it by saying:<ref>{{cite book |author=Giancarlo Casale|title=The Ottoman Age of Exploration|url=https://archive.org/details/ottomanageexplor00casa|url-access=limited|year=2010 |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0199798797 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ottomanageexplor00casa/page/n63 43] }}</ref>{{Blockquote|''Yemen is a land with no lord, an empty province. It would be not only possible but easy to capture, and should it be captured, it would be master of the lands of [[Indian subcontinent|India]] and send every year a great amount of gold and jewels to [[Constantinople]].''}}
[[File:Codice Casanatense Arabian Boduis.jpg|thumb|Arabian ''boduis'' farm couple, possibly Yemeni (''[[Códice Casanatense]]'', c. 1540)]]
Imam [[al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din]] ruled over the northern highlands including [[Sana'a]] while [[Aden]] was held by the last [[Tahirids (Yemen)|Tahiride]] Sultan 'Amir ibn Dauod. Hadım Suleiman Pasha stormed [[Aden]] in 1538, killing its ruler and extended Ottoman's authority to include [[Zabid]] in 1539 and eventually [[Tihama]] in its entirety.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني|year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=88 |language=ar}}</ref> [[Zabid]] became the administrative headquarters of [[Yemen Eyalet]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=88 |language=ar}}</ref> The Ottoman governors did not exercise much control over the highlands; they held sway mainly in the southern coastal region, particularly around [[Zabid]], [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] and [[Aden]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Jane Hathaway|title=A Tale of Two Factions: Myth, Memory, and Identity in Ottoman Egypt and Yemen|year=2012 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0791486108 |page=83 }}</ref> Out of 80,000 soldiers sent to Yemen from [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]] between 1539 – 1547, only 7,000 survived.<ref name="Robert W. Stookey 1978 134">{{cite book |author=Robert W. Stookey|title=Yemen: the politics of the Yemen Arab Republic|year=1978 |publisher=Westview Press|isbn=0891583009 |page=134 }}</ref> The Ottoman accountant-general in [[Eyalet of Egypt|Egypt]] remarks:<ref name="Robert W. Stookey 1978 134"/>{{Blockquote|''We have seen no foundry like Yemen for our soldiers. Each time we have sent an expeditionary force there, it has melted away like salt dissolved in water.''}}

The Ottoman sent yet another expeditionary force to [[Zabid]] in 1547 while Imam [[al-Mutawakkil Yahya Sharaf ad-Din]] was ruling the highlands independently. Imam al-Mutawakkil Yahya chose his son Ali to succeed him, a decision that infuriated his other son [[al-Mutahhar|al-Mutahhar ibn Yahya]].<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 95">{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=95 |language=ar}}</ref> [[Al-Mutahhar]] was lame and therefore not qualified for the Imamate.<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 95"/> He urged Oais Pasha, the Ottoman colonial governor in [[Zabid]], to attack his father.<ref>{{cite book |author1=R. B. Serjeant |author2=Ronald Lewcock |title=Sana: An Arabian Islamic City|year=1983 |publisher=World of Islam Festival Pub. Co |isbn= 0905035046 |page=70 }}</ref> Indeed, Ottoman troops supported by tribal forces loyal to Imam [[al-Mutahhar]] stormed [[Ta'izz]] and marched north toward [[Sana'a]] in August 1547. The Turks officially made Imam [[al-Mutahhar]] a [[Sanjak-bey]] with authority over [['Amran]]. Imam [[al-Mutahhar]] assassinated the Ottoman colonial governor and recaptured [[Sana'a]] but the Ottomans led by [[Özdemir Pasha]], forced [[al-Mutahhar]] to retreat to his fortress in [[Thula]]. [[Özdemir Pasha]] effectively put Yemen under Ottoman rule between 1552 and 1560. He garrisoned the main cities, built new fortresses  and rendered secure the main routes.<ref name="Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert 1994 333">{{cite book |author1=Halil İnalcık |author2=Donald Quataert |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914|year=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn= 0521343151 |page=333 }}</ref> Özdemir died in [[Sana'a]] in 1561 to be succeeded by [[Mahmud Pasha (governor)|Mahmud Pasha]].

[[Mahmud Pasha (governor)|Mahmud Pasha]] was described by other Ottoman officials as corrupt and unscrupulous governor, he used his authority to take over a number of castles some of which belonged to the former [[Rasulid Dynasty|Rasulid Kings]].<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 95"/> [[Mahmud Pasha (governor)|Mahmud Pasha]] killed a [[Sunni]] scholar from [[Ibb]].<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 132">{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=132 |language=ar}}</ref> The Ottoman historian claimed that this incident was celebrated by the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi Shia]] community in the northern highlands.<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 132"/> Disregarding the delicate balance of power in Yemen by acting tactlessly, he alienated different groups within Yemeni society, causing them to forget their rivalries and unite against the Turks.<ref name="Halil İnalcık, Donald Quataert 1994 333"/> [[Mahmud Pasha (governor)|Mahmud Pasha]] was displaced by Ridvan Pasha in 1564. By 1565, Yemen was split into two provinces: the highlands under the command of Ridvan Pasha and [[Tihama]] under Murad Pasha. Imam [[al-Mutahhar]] launched a propaganda campaign in which he claimed contact with prophet Muhammad in a dream advising him to wage [[jihad]] against the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=134 |language=ar}}</ref> [[Al-Mutahhar]] led the tribes to capture [[Sana'a]] from Ridvan Pasha in 1567. When Murad tried to relieve [[Sana'a]], highland tribesmen ambushed his unit and slaughtered all of them.<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 180">{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=180 |language=ar}}</ref> Over 80 battles were fought, the last decisive encounter took place in [[Dhamar, Yemen|Dhamar]] around 1568 in which Murad Pasha was beheaded and had his head sent to [[al-Mutahhar]] in [[Sana'a]].<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 180"/><ref name="Abdul Ali 1996 103">{{cite book |author=Abdul Ali|title=Islamic Dynasties of the Arab East: State and Civilization During the Later Medieval Times|year=1996 |publisher=M.D. Publications Pvt. Ltd |isbn=8175330082|page=103 }}</ref> By 1568, only [[Zabid]] remained under the possession of the Turks.<ref name="Abdul Ali 1996 103"/>

[[File:Thula fortification2.jpg|thumbnail|Ruins of [[Thula]] fortress in [['Amran]], where [[al-Mutahhar|al-Mutahhar ibn Yaha]] barricaded himself against Ottoman attacks.]]
[[Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha]], the Ottoman governor of [[Ottoman Syria|Syria]], was ordered by [[Selim II]] to suppress the Yemeni rebels,<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 198">{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=198 |language=ar}}</ref> the Turkish army in [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]] was reluctant to go to Yemen however.<ref name="Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī 2002 198"/> [[Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha|Mustafa Pasha]] sent a letter with two Turkish [[Sergeant|shawishes]] hoping to persuade [[al-Mutahhar]] to give an apology and say that he did not promote any act of aggression against the Ottoman army, and claim that the '' ignorant Arabians '' according to the Turks, acted on their own.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=200 |language=ar}}</ref> Imam [[al-Mutahhar]] refused the Ottoman offer. [[Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha|Mustafa Pasha]] sent an expeditionary force under the command of Uthman Pasha, the expeditionary force was defeated with great casualties.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=208 |language=ar}}</ref> Sultan [[Selim II]] was infuriated by [[Lala Kara Mustafa Pasha|Mustafa's]] hesitation to go Yemen, he executed a number of [[sanjak-bey]]s in Egypt and ordered [[Sinan Pasha]] to lead the entire Turkish army in [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]] to reconquer Yemen.<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=210 |language=ar}}</ref> [[Sinan Pasha]] was a prominent Ottoman General of [[Albanians|Albanian]] origin.<ref name="Abdul Ali 1996 103"/> In 1570, he reconquered [[Aden]], [[Ta'izz]], and [[Ibb]], and he besieged [[Shibam Kawkaban District|Shibam Kawkaban]] for 7 months until a truce was reached.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Nancy Um|title=The merchant houses of Mocha: trade and architecture in an Indian Ocean port|year=2009|page=19|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0295989105}}</ref> Imam [[al-Mutahhar]] was pushed back but could not be entirely overcome.<ref>{{cite book|author=Robert W. Stookey|year=1978|title=Yemen: the politics of the Yemen Arab Republic|page=141|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=0891583009}}</ref> After [[al-Mutahhar]]'s demise in 1572, the Zaydi community was not united under an imam; the Turks took advantage of their disparity and conquered [[Sana'a]], [[Sa'dah]] and [[Najran]] in 1583.<ref name="Michel Tuchscherer">{{cite journal|url=http://cy.revues.org/11|title=Chronologie du Yémen (1506–1635)', Chroniques yémenites|author=Michel Tuchscherer|journal=Chroniques Yéménites |date=July 2000 |issue=8 |access-date=3 February 2014|archive-date=11 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131211012908/http://cy.revues.org/11|url-status=live}}</ref> Imam [[An-Nasir al-Hasan bin Ali|al-Nasir Hassan]] was arrested in 1585 and exiled to [[Constantinople]], thereby putting an end to the Yemeni rebellion.<ref name="Abdul Ali 1996 103"/>

The [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]] tribesmen in the northern highlands, particularly those of [[Hashid]] and [[Bakil]], were a constant irritant to Turkish rule in [[Arabia]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Harold F. Jacob|year=2007|title=Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovranty in the Arabian Peninsula|page=70|publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press|isbn=978-1859641989}}</ref> Justifying their presence in Yemen as a triumph for Islam, the Ottomans accused the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]]s of being [[Kafir|infidels]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad Nahrawālī|title=Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71|trans-title=البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني |year=2002 |publisher=OI.B.Tauris |isbn=1860648363 |page=197 |language=ar}}</ref> Hassan Pasha was appointed governor of [[Yemen Eyalet|Yemen]], which enjoyed a period of relative peace from 1585 to 1597. Pupils of [[al-Mansur al-Qasim]] suggested that he claim the immamate and fight the Turks. He declined at first but was infuriated by the promotion of the [[Hanafi]] school of [[Fiqh|jurisprudence]] at the expense of [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi Islam]]. He proclaimed the Imamate in September 1597, which was the same year the Ottoman authorities inaugurated [[al-Bakiriyya Mosque]].<ref name="Michel Tuchscherer"/> By 1608, Imam [[Al-Mansur al-Qasim|al-Mansur]] (the victorious) regained control over the highlands and signed a 10-year truce with the Ottomans.<ref>{{cite book|title=al-Ihsan fî dukhûl Mamlakat al-Yaman taht zill Adalat al-'Uthman|author='Abd al-Samad al-Mawza'i|trans-title=الإحسان في دخول مملكة اليمن تحت ظل عدالة آل عثمان|year=1986|pages=99–105|language=ar|publisher= New Generation Library}}</ref> When Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died in 1620 his son [[Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad]] succeeded him and confirmed the truce with the Ottomans. In 1627, the Ottomans lost [[Aden]] and [[Lahej]]. 'Abdin Pasha was ordered to suppress the rebels but failed and had to retreat to [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]].<ref name="Michel Tuchscherer"/> After [[Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad]] expelled the Ottomans from [[Sana'a]] in 1628, only [[Zabid]] and [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] remained under Ottoman possession. [[Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad]] captured [[Zabid]] in 1634 and allowed the Ottomans to leave [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] peacefully.<ref>{{cite book|author=Amira Maddah|year=1982|title=l-Uthmâniyyun wa-l-Imam al-Qasim b. Muhammad b. Ali fo-l-Yaman|trans-title=العثمانيون والإمام القاسم بن محمد في اليمن|page=839|language=ar}}</ref> The reasons behind [[Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad]]'s success were the tribes' possession of firearms and the fact that they were unified behind him.<ref>{{cite book|author=Musflafâ Sayyid Salim|year=1974|title=al-Fath al-'Uthmani al-Awwal li-l-Yaman|trans-title= الفتح العثماني الأول لليمن|page=357|language=ar}}</ref>
[[File:Zaydi_State_1675.jpg|thumb|left|Zaidi State under the rule of Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il (1675)]]
[[File:Mocha1692.jpg|thumb|[[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]] was Yemen's busiest port in the 17th and 18th century.]]
In 1632, [[Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad]] sent an expeditionary force of 1000 men to conquer [[Mecca]].<ref name="Faulder">{{cite book|title=Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WJFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA75|volume=2|page = 75|year=1789|publisher=R. Faulder}}</ref> The army entered the city in triumph and killed its governor.<ref name="Faulder"/> The Ottomans were not ready to lose [[Mecca]] after Yemen, so they sent an army from [[Lower Egypt|Egypt]] to fight the Yemenites.<ref name="Faulder"/> Seeing that the Turkish army was too numerous to overcome, the Yemeni army retreated to a valley outside [[Mecca]].<ref name="R. Faulder">{{cite book|title=Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WJFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA75|volume=2|page = 76|year=1789|publisher=R. Faulder}}</ref> Ottoman troops attacked the Yemenis by hiding at the wells that supplied them with water. This plan proceeded successfully, causing the Yemenis over 200 casualties, most from thirst.<ref name="R. Faulder"/> The tribesmen eventually surrendered and returned to Yemen.<ref>{{cite book|title=Accounts and Extracts of the Manuscripts in the Library of the King of France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WJFAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA75|volume=2|page = 78|year=1789|publisher=R. Faulder}}</ref> [[Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad]] died in 1644. He was succeeded by [[Al-Mutawakkil Isma'il]], another son of [[al-Mansur al-Qasim]], who conquered Yemen in its entirety, from [[Asir]] in the north to [[Zafar, Yemen|Dhofar]] in the east.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Kjetil Selvik |author2=Stig Stenslie |year=2011|title=Stability and Change in the Modern Middle East|page=90|publisher=I. B. Tauris|isbn=978-1848855892}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=Anna Hestler |author2=Jo-Ann Spilling |year=2010|title=Yemen|page=23|publisher=Marshall Cavendish|isbn=978-0761448501}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author= Richard N. Schofield|year=1994|title=Territorial foundations of the Gulf states|page=90|publisher=UCL Press|isbn=1857281217}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Robert D. Burrowes|year=2010|title=Historical Dictionary of Yemen|page=295|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0810855281}}</ref> During his reign and that of his successor, [[Al-Mahdi Ahmad]] (1676–1681), the Imamate implemented some of the harshest discriminatory laws (Ar. ''ghiyar'') against the Jews of Yemen, which culminated in the [[Exile of Mawza|expulsion of all Jews]] to a hot and arid region in the [[Tihama]] coastal plain. The ''Qasimid'' state was the strongest [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]] state to ever exist.

During that period, Yemen was the sole Coffee producer in the world.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nelly Hanna|year=2005|title=Society and Economy in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1600–1900: Essays in Honor of André Raymond|page=124|publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press|isbn=9774249372}}</ref> The country established diplomatic relations with the [[Safavid dynasty]] of [[Persia]], the Ottomans of [[Hejaz]], the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal Empire in India]] and Ethiopia. The emperor  [[Fasilides|Fasilides of Ethiopia]] sent three diplomatic missions to Yemen, but relations did not develop into a political alliance as [[Fasilides]] had hoped, due to the rise of powerful feudalists in the country.<ref>{{cite book|author=Roman Loimeier|year=2013|title=Muslim Societies in Africa: A Historical Anthropology|page=193|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0253007971}}</ref> In the first half of the 18th century, the Europeans broke Yemen's monopoly on coffee by smuggling out coffee trees and cultivating them in their own colonies in the East Indies, East Africa, the West Indies and Latin America.<ref>{{cite book|author=Marta Colburn|year=2002|title=The Republic of Yemen: Development Challenges in the 21st Century|page=15|publisher=CIIR|isbn=1852872497}}</ref> The imammate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ari Ariel|year=2013|title=Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries|page=24|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004265370}}</ref> In 1728 or 1731 the chief representative of [[Lahej]] declared himself an independent [[Sultan]] in defiance of the Qasimid Dynasty and conquered [[Aden]] thus establishing the [[Sultanate of Lahej]]. The rising power of the fervently Islamist [[Wahhabi]] movement on the Arabian Peninsula cost the Zaidi state its coastal possessions after 1803. The imam was able to regain them temporarily in 1818, but new intervention by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt in 1833 again wrested the coast from the ruler in Sana'a. After 1835 the imamate changed hands with great frequency and some imams were assassinated. After 1849 the Zaidi polity descended into chaos that lasted for decades.<ref>R.L. Playfair (1859), ''A History of Arabia Felix or Yemen''. Bombay; R.B. Serjeant & R. Lewcock (1983), ''San'a': An Araban Islamic City''. London.</ref>

=== The United Kingdom and the nine regions ===
{{See also|Aden Protectorate|Sultanate of Lahej|Aden Colony}}
[[File:Yem5.jpg|thumb|Saint Mary's Garrison church in [[Aden]] was built by the British in 1850 and is currently abandoned.]]
[[File:Stamp Aden Kathiri Seiyun 1942 2.5a.jpg|thumb|upright|Postage stamp of the Kathiri state of Sai'yun with portrait of Sultan Jafar bin Mansur. Kathiri is Kingdom of Hadhramaut Protected/Controlled [[British Empire]].]]
[[File:Flag of Aden (1937–1963).svg|thumb|left|Flag of the [[Colony of Aden]].]]
[[File:Aden 1953-35c.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Queen Elizabeth II]] and [[Gulf of Aden]] at Yemen 35 cent Stamp.]]
The British were looking for a coal depot to service their steamers en route to [[India]]. It took 700 tons of coal for a round-trip from [[Suez]] to [[Bombay]]. [[East India Company]] officials decided on Aden. London tried to reach an agreement with the Zaydi imam of [[Sana'a]] permitting them a foothold in [[Mocha, Yemen|Mocha]]; and when unable to secure their position, they extracted a similar agreement from the [[Sultanate of Lahej|Sultan of Lahej]], enabling them to consolidate a position in [[Aden]].<ref>Caesar E. Farah, "Reaffirming Ottoman Sovereignty in Yemen, 1825-1840"  ''International Journal of Turkish Studies'' (1984) 3#1 pp 101-116.</ref><ref name="Caesar E. Farah 2002 120">{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title=The Sultan's Yemen: 19th Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n142 120]|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1860647677}}</ref>

An incident played into British hands when, while passing [[Aden]] for trading purposes, one of their sailing ships sank and Arab tribesmen boarded it and plundered its contents. The [[British India|British India government]] dispatched a warship under the command of Captain Stafford Bettesworth Haines to demand compensation.<ref name="Caesar E. Farah 2002 120"/>  Haines bombarded Aden from his warship in January 1839. The ruler of [[Lahej]], who was in Aden at the time, ordered his guards to defend the port, but they failed in the face of overwhelming military and naval power. The British managed to occupy [[Aden]] and agreed to compensate the sultan with an annual payment of 6000 [[Yemeni rial|riyals]].<ref name="Caesar E. Farah 2002 120"/> The British evicted the [[Sultanate of Lahej|Sultan of Lahej]] from [[Aden]] and forced him to accept their "protection".<ref name="Caesar E. Farah 2002 120"/> In November 1839, 5000 tribesmen tried to retake the town but were repulsed and 200 were killed. The British realized that Aden's prosperity depended on their relations with the neighboring tribes, which required that they rest on a firm and satisfactory basis.<ref>{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title=The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n146 124]|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1860647677}}</ref>

The British government concluded "protection and friendship" treaties with nine tribes surrounding Aden, whereas they would remain independent from British interference in their affairs as long as they do not conclude treaties with foreigners (non-Arab colonial powers).<ref>{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title=The Sultan's Yemen: 19th Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n143 121]|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1860647677}}</ref> [[Aden]] was declared a [[Free economic zone|free zone]] in 1850. With emigrants from [[India]], East Africa and Southeast Asia, Aden grew into a "world city". In 1850, only 980 Arabs were registered as original inhabitants of the city.<ref>{{cite book|author=R. J. Gavin|year=1975|title=Aden Under British Rule, 1839–1967|url=https://archive.org/details/adenunderbritish0000gavi|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/adenunderbritish0000gavi/page/60 60]|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=0903983141}}</ref> The English presence in Aden put them at odds with the Ottomans. The Turks asserted to the British that they held sovereignty over the whole of [[Arabia]], including Yemen as successor of [[Prophet Mohammed|Mohammed]] and the chief of the universal [[Caliphate]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title=The Sultan's Yemen: 19th Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n154 132]|publisher=I.B.Tauris|isbn=1860647677}}</ref>

=== Ottoman return ===
{{See also|Yemen Vilayet}}
[[File:Mukhtar Pasha.jpg|thumb|upright|left|The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Grand Vizier]] and [[Wāli]] (Governor) of Yemen [[Ahmed Muhtar Pasha]]]]
The Ottomans were concerned about the British expansion from [[British Raj|India]] to the [[Red Sea]] and [[Arabia]]. They returned to the [[Tihama]] in 1849 after an absence of two centuries.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title= The Sultan's Yemen: 19th Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|publisher= I.B.Tauris|page= [https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n142 120]|isbn=1860647677}}</ref> Rivalries and disturbances continued among the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi imams]], between them and their deputies, with the [[ulema]], with the heads of tribes, as well as with those who belonged to other sects. Some citizens of [[Sana'a]] were desperate to return law and order to Yemen and asked the Ottoman Pasha in [[Tihama]] to pacify the country.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Reeva S. Simon |author2=Michael Menachem Laskier |author3=Sara Reguer |year=2013|title=The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times|page=390|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0231507592}}</ref> Yemeni merchants knew that the return of the Ottomans would improve their trade, for the Ottomans would become their customers.<ref>{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title= The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|publisher= I.B.Tauris|page= [https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n81 59]|isbn=1860647677}}</ref> An Ottoman expedition force tried to capture [[Sana'a]] but was defeated and had to evacuate the highlands.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Derryl N. Maclean |author2=Sikeena Karmali Ahmed |year=2012|title=Cosmopolitanisms in Muslim Contexts: Perspectives from the Past|page=54|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0748644568}}</ref> The opening of the [[Suez Canal]] in 1869 strengthened the Ottomans' decision to remain in Yemen.<ref name="B. Z. Eraqi Klorman 1993 11">{{cite book|author=B. Z. Eraqi Klorman|year=1993|title=The Jews of Yemen in the Nineteenth Century: A Portrait of a Messianic Community|page=11|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004096841}}</ref> In 1872, military forces were dispatched from [[Constantinople]] and moved beyond the Ottoman stronghold in the lowlands ([[Tihama]]) to conquer [[Sana'a]]. By 1873 the Ottomans succeeded in conquering the northern highlands. [[Sana'a]] became the administrative capital of [[Yemen Vilayet]].

The Ottomans learned from their previous experience and worked on the disempowerment of local lords in the highland regions. They even attempted to secularize the Yemeni society; [[Yemenite Jews]] came to perceive themselves in Yemeni nationalist terms.<ref>{{cite book|author=Ari Ariel|year=2013|title=Jewish-Muslim Relations and Migration from Yemen to Palestine in the Late Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries|page=37|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-9004265370}}</ref> The Ottomans appeased the tribes by forgiving their rebellious chiefs and appointing them to administrative posts. They introduced a series of reforms to enhance the country's economic welfare. On the other hand, corruption was widespread in the Ottoman administration in Yemen. This stemmed from the fact that only the worst of the officials were appointed because those who could avoid serving in Yemen did so.<ref name="Doğan Gürpınar 2013 71">{{cite book|author=Doğan Gürpınar|year=2013|title=Ottoman/Turkish Visions of the Nation, 1860–1950|page=71|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1137334213}}</ref> The Ottomans had reasserted control over the highlands for temporary duration.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The so-called ''[[Tanzimat]]'' reforms were considered heretic by the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]] tribes. In 1876, the [[Hashid]] and [[Bakil]] tribes rebelled against the Ottomans, and the Turks had to appease them with gifts to end the uprising.<ref>{{cite book|author=Caesar E. Farah|year=2002|title= The Sultan's Yemen: 19th-Century Challenges to Ottoman Rule|url=https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara|url-access=limited|publisher= I.B.Tauris|page= [https://archive.org/details/sultansyementhce00fara/page/n118 96]|isbn=1860647677}}</ref>

The tribal chiefs were difficult to appease and an endless cycle of violence curbed the Ottoman efforts to pacify the land. [[Ahmed Izzet Pasha]] proposed that the Ottoman army should evacuate the highlands and confined itself to [[Tihama]] and not to be unnecessarily burdened with continuing military operation against the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]] tribes.<ref name="Doğan Gürpınar 2013 71"/> The hit-and-run tactics of the northern highlands tribesmen wore out the Ottoman military. They resented the Turkish [[Tanzimat]] and defied all attempts to impose a central government upon them.<ref name="B. Z. Eraqi Klorman 1993 11"/> The northern tribes united under the leadership of the House of Hamidaddin in 1890. Imam [[Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din|Yahya Hamidaddin]] led a rebellion against the Turks in 1904, the rebels disrupted the Ottoman ability to govern.<ref>{{cite book|author=B. Z. Eraqi Klorman|year=1993|title=The Jews of Yemen in the Nineteenth Century: A Portrait of a Messianic Community|page=12|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9004096841}}</ref> The revolts between 1904 and 1911 were especially damaging to the Ottomans, costing them as much as 10,000 soldiers and [[Pound sterling|£]]500,000 per year.<ref>{{cite book|author= Eugene L. Rogan|year=2002|title=Frontiers of the State in the Late Ottoman Empire: Transjordan, 1850–1921|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521892236}}</ref> The Ottomans signed a treaty with imam [[Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din|Yahya Hamidaddin]] in 1911. Under the treaty, imam Yahya was recognized as an autonomous leader of the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaydi]] northern highlands. The Ottomans continued to rule [[Shafi'i]] areas in the mid-south until their departure in 1918.

=== Idrisid Emirate and Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen ===
{{Main|Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen}}
[[File:Dar al hajar.jpg|thumb|upright|{{center|1=Imam [[Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din|Yahya hamid ed-Din]]'s house in [[Sana'a]]}}]]

Imam [[Yahya Muhammad Hamid ed-Din|Yahya hamid ed-Din al-Mutawakkil]] was ruling the northern highlands independently since 1911. After the Ottoman departure in 1918 he sought to recapture the lands of his Qasimid ancestors. He dreamed of [[Greater Yemen]] stretching from [[Asir]] to [[Dhofar]]. These schemes brought him into conflict with the de facto rulers in the territories claimed, namely the [[Idrisid Emirate of Asir|Idrisids]], [[Ibn Saud]] and the British government in [[Aden]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Clive Leatherdale|year=1983|title=Britain and Saudi Arabia, 1925–1939: The Imperial Oasis|page=140|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=0714632201}}</ref> The Zaydi imam did not recognize the Anglo-Ottoman border agreement of 1905 on the grounds that it was made between two foreign powers occupying Yemen.<ref>{{cite book|author=Nikshoy C. Chatterji|year=1973|title=Muddle of the Middle East, Volume 1|page=197|publisher=Abhinav Publications|isbn=0391003046}}</ref> The border treaty effectively divided Yemen into "north" and "south".<ref>{{cite book|author=Harold F. Jacob|year=2007|title=Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovereignty in the Arabian Peninsula|page=82|publisher=Garnet & Ithaca Press|isbn=978-1859641989}}</ref> In 1915 the British signed a treaty with the Idrisids guaranteeing their security and independence if they would fight against the Turks.<ref>{{cite book|author=James Minahan|year=2002|title=Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: A-C|page=195|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313321094}}</ref> In 1919, Imam Yahya moved southward to liberate the nine British protectorates. The British responded by moving quickly towards [[Tihama]] and occupying [[Al Hudaydah]]. Then they handed it over to their Idrisi allies.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Reich|title=Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary|year=1990|page=508|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313262136}}</ref> Imam Yahya attacked the southern protectorates again in 1922. The British bombed Yahya's tribal forces using aircraft to which the tribes had no effective counter.<ref name="autogenerated34">{{cite book|author=Paul Dresch|title=A History of Modern Yemen|year=2000|page=34|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=052179482X}}</ref>

In 1925, Imam Yahya captured Al Hudaydah from the Idrisids.<ref name="autogenerated509">{{cite book|author=Bernard Reich|title=Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary|year=1990|page=509|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=0313262136}}</ref> He continued to follow and attack the Idrisids until [[Asir]] fell under the control of the Imam's forces, forcing the Idrisids to request an agreement that would enable them to administer the region in the name of the Imam.<ref name="autogenerated509"/> Imam Yahya refused the offer on the grounds that the Idrisis were of a Moroccan descent. According to Imam Yahya, the Idrisids, along with the British, were nothing but recent intruders and ought to be driven out of Yemen permanently.<ref>{{cite book|author=[[Ameen Rihani]]|year=1960|title=Kings of the Arabs|trans-title=Muluk al-Arab|page=214,215,216|publisher=Dar al-Rihani|location=Beirut}}</ref> In 1927, when Imam Yahya's forces were 50 km away from Aden, [[Ta'izz]] and [[Ibb]] were bombed by the British for five days, and the Imam had to pull back.<ref name="autogenerated34"/> Small [[Bedouin]] forces mainly from the [[Madh'hij]] confederation of [[Marib]], attacked [[Shabwah Governorate|Shabwah]] but were bombed by the British and had to retreat.

The [[Italian Empire]] was the first to recognize Imam Yahya as the ''King of Yemen'' in 1926. Furthermore, the Italians in 1926 and 1927 aimed at taking control of the [[Farasan Islands]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090107131711/http://www.articlearchives.com/international-relations/national-security-foreign/1549459-1.html Italy and Yemen in 1926-1928]</ref> Italy had colonies of its own in the region: [[Eritrea#The Italians in Eritrea|Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somaliland|Somaliland]], both of low profitability. There was expectation that increased ties with Yemen would fuel increased trade with the colonies and bring the region into the Italian [[sphere of influence]]. The Kingdom of Yemen at this point had its eye on annexing Aden and Imam Yahya also had aspirations for a [[Greater Yemen]], with the possible help from Italy.

This created a great deal of anxiety for the British, who interpreted it as clear recognition of Imam Yahya's claim to sovereignty over [[Greater Yemen]] which included the [[Aden protectorate]] and Asir.<ref>{{cite book|author=Massimiliano Fiore|year=2010|title=Anglo-Italian Relations in the Middle East, 1922–1940|url=https://archive.org/details/angloitalianrela00fior|url-access=limited|page=[https://archive.org/details/angloitalianrela00fior/page/n37 21]|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd|isbn=978-0754697473}}</ref>

The Idrisids turned to [[Ibn Saud]] seeking his protection from Yahya. In 1932, however, the Idrisids broke their accord with Ibn Saud and went back to Imam Yahya seeking help against Ibn Saud himself, who had begun liquidating their authority and expressed his desire to annex those territories into his own Saudi domain.<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 2002 101">{{cite book|author=[[Madawi al-Rasheed]]|year=2002|title=A History of Saudi Arabia|page=101|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521644127}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Reich|date=1990|title=Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary|page=509|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313262135}}</ref> Imam Yahya demanded the return of all Idrisi dominion.<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 2002 101"/> That same year, a group of [[Hejaz]]i liberals fled to Yemen and plotted to expel Ibn Saud from the former Hashemite [[Kingdom of Hejaz]] which was [[Saudi conquest of Hejaz|conquered by the Saudis]] seven years earlier. Ibn Saud appealed to Britain for aid.<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 97">{{cite book|author=Madawi al-Rasheed|title=A History of Saudi Arabia|date=April 2010|page=97|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521761284}}</ref> The British government sent arms and airplanes.<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 97"/> The British were anxious that Ibn Saud's financial difficulties may encourage the [[Italian Empire]] to bail him out.<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 2002 101"/> Ibn Saud suppressed the Asiri rebellion in 1933, after which the Idrisids fled to [[Sana'a]].<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 97"/> Negotiations between the Imam Yahya and Ibn Saud proved fruitless. After a military confrontation, Ibn Saud announced a ceasefire in May 1934.<ref name="Madawi al-Rasheed 97"/> Imam Yahya agreed to release Saudi hostages and the surrender of the Idrisis to Saudi custody. Imam Yahya ceded the three provinces of [[Najran]], Asir and [[Jizan Region|Jazan]] for 20 years<ref>{{cite book|author1=Raymond A. Hinnebusch |author2=Anoushiravan Ehteshami |title=The Foreign Policies of Middle East States|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781588260208 |url-access=registration |year=2002|page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781588260208/page/262 262]|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|isbn=1588260208}}</ref> and signed another treaty with the British government in 1934. The Imam recognized the British sovereignty over [[Aden protectorate]] for 40 years.<ref>{{cite book|author=Glen Balfour-Paul|title=The End of Empire in the Middle East: Britain's Relinquishment of Power in Her Last Three Arab Dependencies|page=60|year=1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0521466369}}</ref> Yahya submitted to the Saudi and British demands out of fear for Al Hudaydah. According to Bernard Reich, Professor of Political Science and International Affairs at [[George Washington University]], Yahya could have done better by reorganizing the [[Zaidiyyah|Zaidi]] tribes of the northern highlands as his ancestors did against the Turks and British intruders and turn the lands they captured into another graveyard.<ref>{{cite book|author=Bernard Reich|date=1990|title=Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary|page=510|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=9780313262135}}</ref>

Although the imamate lost Asir, it was able to put down rebel tribes in the north using Iraq-trained Yemeni troops. With the country, now established within clearly defined territory, finally pacified, the urban nationalists began to assert themselves. These nationalists had long practiced non-Zaidi traditions (especially [[Shafi'i]]), and were centered in the coastal province of Tahama, the city of [[Taiz|Ta'izz]] and the British-occupied [[Aden]]. Many had been students in Cairo and had acquired connections with the [[Muslim Brotherhood]] and Algerian nationalists. Muslim Brotherhood operatives in Yemen aligned themselves with the urban opposition and supported Zaidi prince Abdullah bin Ahmad al-Wazir, who joined those actively seeking to overthrow Imam Yahya. On February 17, 1948, the opposition revolted in Sana'a and killed Imam Yahya. Crown prince [[Ahmad bin Yahya|Ahmad]] was able to rally northern tribes and retake the capital, quelling the revolt after a brief siege on March 12, 1948.<ref>{{cite book|author=Reinhard Schulze|title=A Modern History of the Islamic World|year=2002|pages=136–37|publisher=New York University Press|isbn=0-8147-9819-5}} (Hereafter "Schulze.")</ref>

Imam Ahmad reversed the isolationist policies of his father and opened Yemen's economy and society to the outside world.  It went as the theocratic and largely medieval Imamate which became the first Arab state to accept Soviet aid. Beginning in 1955 Yemen entered into various treaties of friendship and from 1957 began receiving large amounts of Soviet arms as well as Soviet and Chinese military advisers. When the imam went abroad owing to illness, crown prince [[Muhammad al-Badr]] led a pro-Soviet party and communist activity increased. When the Imam returned in 1959, brutal repression ensued and communists were expelled.<ref>{{cite book|author=Peter Partner|title=A Short Political Guide to the Arab World|url=https://archive.org/details/shortpoliticalgu002089mbp|year=1960|pages=195–96|publisher=Frederick A. Praeger}}</ref>

In April 1956 Yemen joined a defensive pact with Syria and Egypt, and in February 1958 it federated with the [[United Arab Republic]]. In parallel, [[Yemeni-Adenese clan violence|clan violence]] erupted in Yemen and Aden, claiming hundreds of lives over 1956–60. The defensive pact move was conceived as a defensive measure against republican agitation, which urban nationalists still engaged in from British-occupied Aden. So long as Yemen was federated with the UAR, republicans would be deprived any assistance from Egyptian President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser|Nasser]]. Although the federation lasted only for three years, crown prince al-Badr continued to portray himself as an [[Arab nationalism|Arab patriot]], often railing against "reactionary Arab monarchs."<ref>Schulze, p. 157.</ref>