Editing History of Islam (section)

===High Baghdad Abbasids===
''Early Middle Ages''

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  from:813  till:833 color:age text:[[Al-Ma'mun|Ma'mun]]
  from:833  till:842 color:era shift:(0,10) text:[[Al-Mu'tasim|Mu'tasim]]
  from:842  till:847 color:age shift:(0,20) text:[[Al-Wathiq|Wathiq]]
  from:847  till:861 color:era shift:(0,10) text:[[Al-Mutawakkil|Mutawakkil]]
  from:861  till:862 color:age shift:(0,-13) text:[[Al-Muntasir|Muntasir]]
  from:862  till:866 color:era text:[[Al-Musta'in|Musta'in]]
  from:866  till:869 color:age shift:(0,10) text:[[Al-Mu'tazz|Mu'tazz]]
  from:869  till:870 color:era shift:(0,20) text:[[Al-Muhtadi|Muhtadi]]
  from:870  till:892 color:age text:[[Al-Mu'tamid|Mu'tamid]]
  from:892  till:902 color:era shift:(0,-13) text:[[Al-Mu'tadid|Mu'tadid]]
  from:902  till:908 color:age shift:(3,0) text:[[Al-Muktafi|Muktafi]]
  from:908  till:932 color:era shift:(-15,10) text:[[Al-Muqtadir|Muqtadir]]
  from:932  till:934 color:age shift:(0,-13) text:[[Al-Qahir|Qahir]]
  from:934  till:940 color:era text:[[Ar-Radi|Radi]]
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Upon Al-Amin's death, [[Al-Ma'mun]] became Caliph. Al-Ma'mun extended the Abbasid empire's territory during his reign and dealt with rebellions.<ref>Hindu rebellions in Sindh were put down, and most of Afghanistan was absorbed with the surrender of the leader of Kabul. Mountainous regions of Iran were brought under a tighter grip of the central Abbasid government, as were areas of Turkestan. There were disturbances in Iraq during the first several years of Al-Ma'mun's reign. Egypt continued to be unquiet. Sindh was rebellious, but Ghassan ibn Abbad subdued it. An ongoing problem for Al-Ma'mun was the uprising headed by Babak Khorramdin. In 214 Babak routed a Caliphate army, killing its commander Muhammad ibn Humayd.</ref> Al-Ma'mun had been named governor of Khurasan by Harun, and after his ascension to power, the caliph named Tahir as governor of his military services in order to assure his loyalty. Tahir and his family became entrenched in Iranian politics and became powerful, frustrating Al-Ma'mun's desire to centralize and strengthen Caliphal power. The rising power of the [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirid family]] became a threat as Al-Ma'mun's own policies alienated them and other opponents.

Al-Ma'mun worked to centralize power and ensure a smooth succession. Al-Mahdi proclaimed that the caliph was the protector of Islam against heresy, and also claimed the ability to declare orthodoxy. Religious scholars averred that Al-Ma'mun was overstepping his bounds in the ''[[Mihna]]'', the [[Abbasid inquisition]] which he introduced in 833 four months before he died.<ref>The Mihna subjected traditionalist scholars with social influence and intellectual quality to imprisonment, religious tests, and loyalty oaths. Al-Ma'mun introduced the Mihna with the intention to centralize religious power in the caliphal institution and test the loyalty of his subjects. The Mihna had to be undergone by elites, scholars, judges and other government officials, and consisted of a series of questions relating to theology and faith. The central question was about the state of the creation of the Qur'an: if the person interrogated stated he believed the Qur'an to be created, he was free to leave and continue his profession.</ref> The ''[[Ulama]]'' emerged as a force in Islamic politics during Al-Ma'mun's reign for opposing the inquisitions. The ''Ulema'' and the major Islamic law schools took shape in the period of Al-Ma'mun. In parallel, Sunnism became defined as a religion of laws. Doctrinal differences between Sunni and Shi'a Islam became more pronounced.

During the Al-Ma'mun regime, [[List of border conflicts|border war]]s increased. Al-Ma'mun made preparations for a major campaign, but died while leading an expedition in [[Sardis]]. Al-Ma'mun gathered scholars of many religions at Baghdad, whom he treated well and with tolerance. He sent an emissary to the Byzantine Empire to collect the most famous manuscripts there, and had them translated into Arabic.<ref>Had he been victorious over the Byzantine Emperor, Al-Ma'mun would have made a condition of peace be that the emperor hand over of a copy of the "Almagest".</ref> His scientists originated [[alchemy]]. Shortly before his death, during a visit to Egypt in 832, the caliph ordered the breaching of the [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] to search for knowledge and treasure. Workers tunnelled in near where tradition located the original entrance. Al-Ma'mun later died near Tarsus under questionable circumstances and was succeeded by his half-brother, [[Al-Mu'tasim]], rather than his son, Al-Abbas ibn Al-Ma'mun.

As Caliph, Al-Mu'tasim promptly ordered the dismantling of al-Ma'mun's military base at Tyana. He faced Khurramite revolts. One of the most difficult problems facing this Caliph was the ongoing uprising of Babak Khorramdin. Al-Mu'tasim overcame the rebels and secured a significant victory. [[Theophilos (emperor)|Byzantine emperor Theophilus]] launched an attack against Abbasid fortresses. Al-Mu'tasim sent Al-Afshin, who met and defeated Theophilus' forces at the [[Battle of Anzen]]. On his return he became aware of a serious military conspiracy which forced him and his successors to rely upon Turkish commanders and [[ghilman]] slave-soldiers (foreshadowing the [[Mamluk]] system). The Khurramiyyah were never fully suppressed, although they slowly declined during the reigns of succeeding Caliphs. Near the end of al-Mu'tasim's life there was an uprising in Palestine, but he defeated the rebels.
[[File:Abbasid Dinar - Al-Mu'tasim-225h.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Gold dinar]] of Abbasid caliph [[al-Mu'tasim]] ([[Reign|r.]] 833–842) the founder of [[Samarra]], patron of art and science]]
During Al-Mu'tasim's reign, the Tahirid family continued to grow in power. The Tahirids were exempted from many tribute and oversight functions. Their independence contributed to Abbasid decline in the east. Ideologically, al-Mu'tasim followed his half-brother al-Ma'mun. He continued his predecessor's support for the Islamic Mu'tazila sect, applying brutal torture against the opposition. Arab mathematician [[Al-Kindi]] was employed by Al-Mu'tasim and tutored the Caliph's son. Al-Kindi had served at the House of Wisdom and continued his studies in Greek geometry and algebra under the caliph's patronage.<ref>Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, History v. 32 "The Reunification of the Abbasid Caliphate," SUNY, Albany, 1987; v. 33 "Storm and Stress along the Northern frontiers of the Abbasid Caliphate," transl. C.E. Bosworth, SUNY, Albany, 1991</ref>

[[Al-Wathiq]] succeeded his father. Al-Wathiq dealt with opposition in Arabia, Syria, Palestine and in Baghdad. Using a famous sword he personally joined the execution of the Baghdad rebels. The revolts were the result of an increasingly large gap between Arab populations and the Turkish armies. The revolts were put down, but antagonism between the two groups grew, as Turkish forces gained power. He also secured a captive exchange with the Byzantines. Al-Wathiq was a patron of scholars, as well as artists. He personally had musical talent and is reputed to have composed over one hundred songs.<ref>[[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari]] History v. 34 "Incipient Decline," transl. Joel L. Kramer, SUNY, Albany, 1989. {{ISBN|0-88706-875-8}}, {{ISBN|978-0-88706-875-1}}</ref>

[[File:Great Mosque of Samarra.jpg|thumb|[[Malwiya|Minaret]] at the [[Great Mosque of Samarra]].]]
When Al-Wathiq died of high fever, [[Al-Mutawakkil]] succeeded him. Al-Mutawakkil's reign is remembered for many reforms and is viewed as a golden age. He was the last great Abbasid caliph; after his death the dynasty fell into decline. Al-Mutawakkil ended the Mihna. Al-Mutawakkil built the [[Great Mosque of Samarra]]<ref>Its minarets were spiraling cones {{convert|55|m|ft}} high with a spiral ramp, and it had 17 aisles with walls paneled with mosaics of dark blue glass.</ref> as part of an extension of Samarra eastwards. During his reign, Al-Mutawakkil met famous Byzantine theologian [[Saints Cyril and Methodius|Constantine the Philosopher]], who was sent to strengthen diplomatic relations between the Empire and the Caliphate by [[Michael III|Emperor Michael III]]. Al-Mutawakkil involved himself in religious debates, as reflected in his actions against minorities. The Shīʻi faced repression embodied in the destruction of the [[Imam Husayn Shrine|shrine of Hussayn ibn ʻAlī]], an action that was ostensibly carried out to stop pilgrimages. Al-Mutawakkil continued to rely on Turkish statesmen and slave soldiers to put down rebellions and lead battles against foreign empires, notably capturing Sicily from the Byzantines. Al-Mutawakkil was assassinated by a Turkish soldier.

[[Al-Muntasir]] succeeded to the Caliphate on the same day with the support of the Turkish faction, though he was implicated in the murder. The Turkish party had al-Muntasir remove his brothers from the line of succession, fearing revenge for the murder of their father. Both brothers wrote statements of abdication. During his reign, Al-Muntasir removed the ban on pilgrimage to the tombs of Hassan and Hussayn and sent Wasif to raid the Byzantines. Al-Muntasir died of unknown causes. The Turkish chiefs held a council to select his successor, electing [[Al-Musta'in]]. The Arabs and western troops from Baghdad were displeased at the choice and attacked. However, the Caliphate no longer depended on Arabian choice, but depended on Turkish support. After the failed Muslim campaign against the Christians, people blamed the Turks for bringing disaster on the faith and murdering their Caliphs. After the Turks besieged Baghdad, Al-Musta'in planned to abdicate to [[Al-Mu'tazz]] but was put to death by his order. Al-Mu'tazz was enthroned by the Turks, becoming the youngest Abbasid Caliph to assume power.

{|class="wikitable" style="float:left; clear:left; width: 250px; margin-right:1em;"
|-
!style="background-color: #f8eaba;" | High Abbasids<br />Jurisprudence
|-
|{{center|''Four constructions of Islamite law''}}
* [[Abu Hanifa]] (Iraq teacher)
* [[Malik ibn Anas]] (Medina Imam)
* [[Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i]] (Egyptian Imam)
* [[Ahmad ibn Hanbal]] (Baghdad teacher)
|-
!style="background-color: #f8eaba;" | Early Abbasids<br />Literature and Science
|-
|
* [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]], physician, Greek translator;
* [[Ibn Fadlan]], explorer;
* [[Al Battani]], astronomer;
* [[Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari|Tabari]], historian and theologian;
* [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Al-Razi]], philosopher, medic, chemist;
* [[Al-Farabi]], chemist and philosopher;
* [[Abu Nasr Mansur]], mathematician;
* [[Alhazen]], mathematician;
* [[Al-Biruni]], mathematician, astronomer, physicist;
* [[Omar Khayyám]], poet, mathematician, and astronomer;
* [[Mansur Al-Hallaj]], Sufism mystic, writer and teacher
|}
Al-Mu'tazz proved too apt a pupil of his Turkish masters, but was surrounded by parties jealous of each other. At [[Samarra]], the Turks were having problems with the "Westerns" (Berbers and [[Moor (people)|Moor]]s), while the Arabs and Persians at Baghdad, who had supported al-Musta'in, regarded both with equal hatred. Al-Mu'tazz put his brothers Al-Mu'eiyyad and Abu Ahmed to death. The ruler spent recklessly, causing a revolt of Turks, Africans, and Persians for their pay. Al-Mu'tazz was brutally deposed shortly thereafter. [[Al-Muhtadi]] became the next Caliph. He was firm and virtuous compared to the earlier Caliphs, though the Turks held the power. The Turks killed him soon after his ascension. [[Al-Mu'tamid]] followed, holding on for 23 years, though he was largely a ruler in name only. After the [[Zanj Rebellion]], Al-Mu'tamid summoned [[Al-Muwaffaq (vizier)|al-Muwaffak]] to help him. Thereafter, Al-Muwaffaq ruled in all but name. The [[Hamdanid dynasty]] was founded by [[Hamdan ibn Hamdun]] when he was appointed governor of [[Mardin]] in Anatolia by the Caliphs in 890. Al-Mu'tamid later transferred authority to his son, [[al-Mu'tadid]], and never regained power. The [[Tulunids]] became the first independent state in Islamic Egypt, when they broke away during this time.

Al-Mu'tadid ably administered the Caliphate. Egypt returned to allegiance and Mesopotamia was restored to order. He was tolerant towards Shi'i, but toward the Umayyad community he was not so just. Al-Mu'tadid was cruel in his punishments, some of which are not surpassed by those of his predecessors. For example, the Kharijite leader at Mosul was paraded about Baghdad clothed in a robe of silk, of which Kharijites denounced as sinful, and then crucified. Upon Al-Mu'tadid's death, his son by a Turkish slave-girl, [[Al-Muktafi]], succeeded to the throne.

Al-Muktafi became a favourite of the people for his generosity, and for abolishing his father's secret prisons, the terror of Baghdad. During his reign, the Caliphate overcame threats such as the [[Carmathians]]. <!-- prevailed more or less with the Byzantines, who were not slow to take advantage of the Caliphate's difficulties.what does this mean? hostilities do not prevail. one or the other combatants might. "War was kept up with various fortune on both sides." Did the fortunes fund the war or did both sides have success?--> Upon Al-Muktafi's death, the vazir next chose [[Al-Muqtadir]]. Al-Muqtadir's reign was a constant succession of thirteen Vazirs, one rising on the fall or assassination of another. His long reign brought the Empire to its lowest ebb. Africa was lost, and Egypt nearly. Mosul threw off its dependence, and the Greeks raided across the undefended border. The East continued to formally recognize the Caliphate, including those who virtually claimed independence.

At the end of the Early Baghdad Abbasids period, Empress [[Zoe Karbonopsina]] pressed for an armistice with Al-Muqtadir and arranged for the ransom of the Muslim prisoner<ref>A sum of 120,000 golden pieces was paid for the freedom of the captives.</ref> while the Byzantine frontier was threatened by Bulgarians. This only added to Baghdad's disorder. Though despised by the people, Al-Muqtadir was again placed in power after upheavals. Al-Muqtadir was eventually slain outside the city gates, whereupon courtiers chose his brother [[al-Qahir]]. He was even worse. Refusing to abdicate, he was blinded and cast into prison.

His son [[al-Radi]] took over only to experience a cascade of misfortune. Praised for his piety, he became the tool of the de facto ruling Minister, [[Ibn Raik]] (''[[amir al-umara]]''; 'Amir of the Amirs'). Ibn Raik held the reins of government and his name was joined with the Caliph's in public prayers. Around this period, the [[Hanbali]]s, supported by popular sentiment, set up in fact a kind of 'Sunni inquisition'. Ar-Radi is commonly regarded as the last of the real Caliphs: the last to deliver orations at the Friday service, to hold assemblies, to commune with philosophers, to discuss the questions of the day, to take counsel on the affairs of State; to distribute [[Alms and Almsgiving|alms]], or to temper the severity of cruel officers. Thus ended the Early Baghdad Abbasids.

In the late mid-930s, the [[Ikhshidid dynasty|Ikhshidids]] of Egypt carried the Arabic title "Wali" reflecting their position as governors on behalf of the Abbasids, The first governor ([[Muhammad bin Tughj Al-Ikhshid]]) was installed by the Abbasid Caliph. They gave him and his descendants the Wilayah for 30 years. The last name Ikhshid is Soghdian for "prince".

Also in the 930s, [['Imad al-Daula|'Alī ibn Būyah]] and his two younger brothers, [[Rukn al-Daula|al-Hassan]] and [[Mu'izz al-Daula|Aḥmad]] founded the [[Buyid dynasty|Būyid confederation]]. Originally a soldier in the service of the [[Ziyarids|Ziyārīds]] of [[Tabaristan|Ṭabaristān]], 'Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from [[Baghdad]] named Yāqūt in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the caliphate, while accepting the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad. The Būyids made large territorial gains. [[Fars province|Fars]] and [[Jibal]] were conquered. Central Iraq submitted in 945, before the Būyids took [[Kerman|Kermān]] (967), [[Oman]] (967), the [[Al Jazira, Mesopotamia|Jazīra]] (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and [[Gorgan]] (981). After this the Būyids went into slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming ''de facto'' independent.<ref>Examples of the former include the loss of [[Mosul]] in 990, and the loss of Ṭabaristān and Gurgān in 997. An example of the latter is the [[Kakuyids|Kakūyid]] dynasty of [[Isfahan|Isfahān]], whose fortunes rose with the decline of the Būyids of northern Iran.</ref>