Editing History of Algeria (section)

=== Zirid Dynasty ===
{{main|Zirid Dynasty}}
[[File:Zirid control circa 980 (version 2).png|thumb|Maximum extent of the Zirid Kingdom]]
The Zirid dynasty ({{langx|ar|الزيريون|translit=az-zīriyyūn}}), Banu Ziri ({{langx|ar|بنو زيري|translit=banū zīrī}}), or the Zirid state ({{langx|ar|الدولة الزيرية|translit=ad-dawla az-zīriyya}})<ref>{{Cite book |last=محمد، |first=صلابي، علي محمد |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbxIAAAAMAAJ&q=%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9 |title=الدولة العبيدية في ليبيا |date=1998 |publisher=دار البيارق، |language=ar}}</ref> was a [[Sanhaja]] [[Berbers|Berber]] [[dynasty]] from modern-day [[Algeria]] which ruled the central [[Maghreb]] from 972 to 1014 and [[Ifriqiya]] (eastern Maghreb) from 972 to 1148.<ref name="Britanica">{{Cite news |title=Zirid Dynasty {{!}} Muslim dynasty |newspaper=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://global.britannica.com/topic/Zirid-Dynasty |url-status=dead |access-date=2016-11-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229165604/https://global.britannica.com/topic/Zirid-Dynasty |archive-date=29 February 2020}}</ref><ref name="Qantara-1152">{{Cite web |website=Qantara |title=Les Zirides et les Hammadides (972-1152) |url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=596 |access-date=2016-11-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303182235/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=596 |archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>

Descendants of [[Ziri ibn Manad]], a military leader of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]] and the eponymous founder of the dynasty, the Zirids were [[emir]]s who ruled in the name of the Fatimids. The Zirids gradually established their autonomy in Ifriqiya through military conquest until officially breaking with the Fatimids in the mid-11th century. The rule of the Zirid emirs opened the way to a period in North African history where political power was held by Berber dynasties such as the [[Almoravid dynasty]], [[Almohad Caliphate]], [[Zayyanid dynasty]], [[Marinid Sultanate]] and [[Hafsid dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hrbek |first1=Ivan |title=Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century |author2=Unesco International Scientific Committee for the Drafting of a General History of Africa |year=1992 |publisher=J. Currey |isbn=9780852550939 |pages=172 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qDFcD0BuekQC&q=zirid+map&pg=PA172}}</ref>

Under [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]] the Zirids extended their control westwards and briefly occupied [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] and much of present-day [[Morocco]] after 980, but encountered resistance from the local [[Zenata|Zenata Berbers]] who gave their allegiance to the [[Caliphate of Cordoba]].{{sfn|Meynier|2010|p=158}}{{sfn|Julien|1994|p=295}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Simon |first=Jacques |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=V31-r9820IQC&pg=PA165 |title=L'Algérie au passé lointain: de Carthage à la régence d'Alger |year=2011 |publisher=Harmattan |isbn=9782296139640 |pages=165 |language=fr}}</ref><ref name="RingWatson2014">{{cite book |author1=Trudy Ring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |author2=Noelle Watson |author3=Paul Schellinger |date=5 March 2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-25986-1 |page=36}}</ref> To the east, Zirid control was extended over [[Tripolitania]] after 978{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=67}} and as far as [[Ajdabiya]] (in present-day Libya).{{sfn|Fage|Oliver|1975|p=15}}<ref name="Fehervari-2002a">{{Cite book |last=Fehérvári |first=Géza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6cuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Qairawan+and+not+Cairo+that+ruled+both+Surt+and+Ajdabiya%22 |title=Excavations at Surt (Medinat Al-Sultan) Between 1977 and 1981 |publisher=Department of Antiquities |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-900971-00-3 |pages=17 |language=en}}</ref> One member of the dynastic family, [[Zawi ibn Ziri]], revolted and fled to [[al-Andalus]], eventually founding the [[Taifa of Granada]] in 1013, after the collapse of the Caliphate of Cordoba.<ref name="Qantara-1152" /> Another branch of the Zirids, the [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]], broke away from the main branch after various internal disputes and took control of the territories of the central Maghreb after 1015.<ref name="Bosworth-2004a">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780748696482 |location= |pages=13 |chapter=The Zirids and Hammadids}}</ref> The Zirids proper were then designated as Badicides and occupied only Ifriqiya between 1048 and 1148.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Idris |first=Hady Roger |year=1968 |title=L'invasion hilālienne et ses conséquences |url=http://www.persee.fr/doc/ccmed_0007-9731_1968_num_11_43_1452 |journal=Cahiers de civilisation médiévale |volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=353–369 |doi=10.3406/ccmed.1968.1452}}</ref> They were based in [[Kairouan]] until 1057, when they moved the capital to [[Mahdia]] on the coast.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=69-70}} The Zirids of Ifriqiya also intervened in [[Sicily]] during the 11th century, as the [[Kalbids]], the dynasty who governed the island on behalf of the Fatimids, fell into disorder.<ref name="Rizzitano-2007">{{Cite book |last=Rizzitano |first=U. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |year=1960–2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Kalbids |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref>

The Zirids of Granada surrendered to the Almoravids in 1090,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&pg=PA37 |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |year=2004 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=9780748621378 |pages=37–38 |language=en}}</ref> but the Badicides and the Hammadids remained independent during this time. Sometime between 1041 and 1051 the Zirid ruler [[al-Mu'izz ibn Badis]] renounced the Fatimid Caliphs and recognized the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] Muslim [[Abbasid Caliphate]].{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=68-69}} In retaliation, the Fatimids instigated the migration of the [[Banu Hilal]] tribe to the Maghreb, dealing a serious blow to Zirid power in Ifriqiya.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=69-70}}{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p=514}} In the 12th century, the [[Hilalian invasion of Ifriqiya|Hilalian invasions]] combined with the attacks of the [[Normans]] of Sicily along the coast further weakened Zirid power. The last Zirid ruler, [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali|al-Hasan]], surrendered Mahdia to the Normans in 1148, thus ending independent Zirid rule.{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p=514}} The [[Almohad Caliphate]] conquered the central Maghreb and Ifriqiya by 1160, ending the Hammadid dynasty in turn and finally unifying the whole of the Maghreb.{{sfn|Meynier|2010|p=158}}{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=56-57}}

==== Origins and establishment ====
The Zirids were [[Sanhaja]] [[Berbers]], from the [[Sedentary lifestyle|sedentary]] Talkata tribe,{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=64}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ilahiane |first=Hsain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0E8qp_k515oC&dq=talkata+zirid&pg=PA149 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen) |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8108-6490-0 |pages=149 |language=en}}</ref> originating from the area of modern [[Algeria]]. In the 10th century this tribe served as vassals of the [[Fatimid Caliphate]], an [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]] [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] state that challenged the authority of the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid caliphs]]. The [[progenitor]] of the Zirid dynasty, [[Ziri ibn Manad]] (r. 935–971) was installed as governor of the central [[Maghreb]] (roughly north-eastern Algeria today) on behalf of the Fatimids, guarding the western frontier of the Fatimid Caliphate.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=54, 63}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=19}} With Fatimid support Ziri founded his own capital and palace at [[Achir|'Ashir]], south-east of [[Algiers]], in 936.<ref name="Brett-2008">{{Cite book |last=Brett |first=Michael |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2008 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Ashīr |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=66}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=54}} He proved his worth as a key ally in 945, during the [[Kharijite]] rebellion of [[Abu Yazid]], when he helped break Abu Yazid's siege of the Fatimid capital, [[Mahdia]].{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}<ref name="Bosworth-2004b">{{Cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780748696482 |location= |pages=13 |chapter=The Zirids and Hammadids}}</ref> After playing this valuable role, he expanded 'Ashir with a new palace circa 947.<ref name="Brett-2008" />{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=188}} In 959 he aided [[Jawhar al-Siqilli|Jawhar al-Siqili]] on a Fatimid military expedition which successfully conquered [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] and [[Sijilmasa]] in present-day Morocco. On their return home to the Fatimid capital they paraded the [[emir]] of Fez and the “Caliph” Ibn Wasul of Sijilmasa in cages in a humiliating manner.<ref name="Halm1996">{{cite book |author=Halm |first=Heinz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=usUjj9OV9l0C&pg=PA399 |title=The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |isbn=90-04-10056-3 |page=399}}</ref><ref>Messier, Ronald A.; Miller, James A. (2015). The Last Civilized Place: Sijilmasa and Its Saharan Destiny. University of Texas Press. {{ISBN|9780292766655}}</ref><ref>Pellat, Charles (1991). "Midrār". In Bosworth, C. E.; van Donzel, E. & Pellat, Ch. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VI: Mahk–Mid. Leiden: E. J. Brill. {{ISBN|978-90-04-08112-3}}</ref> After this success, Ziri was also given [[Tiaret|Tahart]] to govern on behalf of the Fatimids.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=75}} He was eventually killed in battle against the [[Zenata|Zanata]] in 971.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=66}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NFfJAwAAQBAJ&dq=ziri+971+zanata&pg=PA103 |title=Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |publisher=Routledge |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-317-87041-8 |pages=103 |language=en}}</ref>

When the Fatimids moved their capital to [[Egypt]] in 972, Ziri's son [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]] (r. 971–984) was appointed viceroy of [[Ifriqiya]]. He soon led a [[Zirid conquest of Morocco|new expedition]] west and by 980 he had conquered Fez and most of Morocco, which had previously been retaken by the [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Umayyads of Cordoba]] in 973.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naylor |first=Phillip C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rN-EBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 |title=North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-292-76190-2 |pages=84 |language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=67, 75}} He also led a [[Zirid expedition to Barghawata|successful expedition]] to [[Barghawata]] territory, from which he brought back a large number of slaves to Ifriqiya.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hady Roger |first=Idris |url=http://www.asadlis-amazigh.com/fr/wp-content/uploads/livres/La%20berberie%20orientale%20sous%20les%20Zirides%201.pdf |title=La berbérie oriental sous les Zirides |publisher=Adrien-Maisonneuve |year=1962 |pages=57 58 |access-date=2023-02-23 |archive-date=2021-08-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831175434/http://www.asadlis-amazigh.com/fr/wp-content/uploads/livres/La%20berberie%20orientale%20sous%20les%20Zirides%201.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 978 the Fatimids also granted Buluggin overlordship of [[Tripolitania]] (in present-day [[Libya]]), allowing him to appoint his own governor in [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]]. In 984 Buluggin died in Sijilmasa from an illness and his successor decided to abandon Morocco in 985.{{sfn|Tibi|2002|p=514}}<ref name="AkyeampongGates2012">{{cite book |author1=Emmanuel Kwaku Akyeampong |author2=Henry Louis Gates |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39JMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA9 |title=Dictionary of African Biography |date=2 February 2012 |publisher=OUP USA |isbn=978-0-19-538207-5 |page=9}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6XMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Placesedited by Trudy Ring, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger]</ref>

==== Buluggin's successors and the first divisions ====
After Buluggin's death, rule of the Zirid state passed to his son, [[Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin]] (r. 984–996), and continued through his descendants. However, this alienated the other sons of Ziri ibn Manad who now found themselves excluded from power. In 999 many of these brothers launched a rebellion in 'Ashir against [[Badis ibn al-Mansur]] (r. 996–1016), Buluggin's grandson, marking the first serious break in the unity of the Zirids.<ref name="Handler-1974">{{Cite book |last=Handler |first=Andrew |title=The Zirids of Granada |publisher=University of Miami Press |year=1974 |isbn=0870242164 |pages=8–14 |language=en}}</ref> The rebels were defeated in battle by [[Hammad ibn Buluggin]], Badis' uncle, and most of the brothers were killed. The only remaining brother of stature, [[Zawi ibn Ziri]], led the remaining rebels westwards and sought new opportunity in [[al-Andalus]] under the [[Caliphate of Córdoba|Umayyads Caliphs of Cordoba]], the former enemies of the Fatimids and Zirids.<ref name="Handler-1974" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Catlos |first=Brian A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JuVuAwAAQBAJ&dq=zawi+ibn+ziri&pg=PT49 |title=Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-374-71205-1 |pages=27 |language=en}}</ref> He and his followers eventually founded an independent kingdom in al-Andalus, the [[Taifa of Granada|''Taifa'' of Granada]], in 1013.<ref name="Kennedy-1996">{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781317870418 |location= |pages=141–142}}</ref><ref name="Rodgers-2021">{{Cite book |last1=Rodgers |first1=Helen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ugRqEAAAQBAJ |title=City of Illusions: A History of Granada |last2=Cavendish |first2=Stephen |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-19-764406-5 |pages=11–15 |language=en}}</ref>

After 1001 Tripolitania broke away under the leadership of Fulful ibn Sa'id ibn Khazrun, a [[Maghrawa]] leader who founded the [[Banu Khazrun]] dynasty, which endured until 1147.<ref name="Oman-2007">{{Cite book |last1=Oman |first1=G. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |last2=Christides |first2=V. |last3=Bosworth |first3=C.E. |publisher=Brill |year=1960–2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Ṭarābulus al-G̲h̲arb |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=67}}<ref name="Fehervari-2002b">{{Cite book |last=Fehérvári |first=Géza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M6cuAQAAIAAJ&q=%22Qairawan+and+not+Cairo+that+ruled+both+Surt+and+Ajdabiya%22 |title=Excavations at Surt (Medinat Al-Sultan) Between 1977 and 1981 |publisher=Department of Antiquities |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-900971-00-3 |pages=17 |language=en}}</ref> Fulful fought a protracted war against [[Badis ibn al-Mansur]] and sought outside help from the Fatimids and even from the Umayyads of Cordoba, but after his death in 1009 the Zirids were able to retake Tripoli for a time. The region nonetheless remained effectively under control of the Banu Khazrun, who fluctuated between practical autonomy and full independence, often playing the Fatimids and the Zirids against each other.<ref name="Lewicki-2007">{{Cite book |last=Lewicki |first=T. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |year=1960–2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Mag̲h̲rāwa |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref><ref name="Garnier-2020">{{Cite book |last=Garnier |first=Sébastien |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Libya until 1500 |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref>{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=67}}{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=128, 142}} The Zirids finally lost Tripoli to them in 1022.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=174}}

Badis appointed Hammad ibn Buluggin as governor of 'Ashir and the western Zirid territories in 997.{{Sfn|Baadj|2015|p=40}} He gave Hammad a great deal of autonomy, allowing him to campaign against the Zanata and control any new territories he conquered.{{sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=69}} Hammad constructed his own capital, the [[Qal'at Bani Hammad]], in 1008, and in 1015 he rebelled against Badis and declared himself independent altogether, while also recognizing the Abbasids instead of the Fatimids as caliphs. Badis besieged Hammad's capital and nearly subdued him, but died in 1016 shortly before this could be accomplished. His son and successor, [[al-Mu'izz ibn Badis]] (r. 1016–1062), defeated Hammad in 1017, which forced the negotiation of a peace agreement between them. Hammad resumed his recognition of the Fatimids as caliphs but remained independent, forging a new [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadid]] state which controlled a large part of present-day Algeria thereafter.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=69}}

==== Apogee in Ifriqiya ====
The Zirid period of Ifriqiya is considered a high point in its history, with agriculture, industry, trade and learning, both religious and secular, all flourishing, especially in their capital, [[Qayrawan]] (Kairouan).<ref name="locfatamids2">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Brill |first=E.J. |year=1987 |title=Fatamids |encyclopedia=Libya: Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Library of Congress |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpM3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA852 |access-date=5 March 2011 |isbn=9004082654}}</ref> The early reign of [[al-Mu'izz ibn Badis]] (r. 1016–1062) was particularly prosperous and marked the height of their power in Ifriqiya.{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}} In the eleventh century, when the question of Berber origin became a concern, the dynasty of al-Mu'izz started, as part of the Zirids' propaganda, to emphasize its supposed links to the [[Himyarite Kingdom|Himyarite kings]] as a title to nobility, a theme that was taken the by court historians of the period.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=12}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brett |first=Michael |title=The Fatimids and Egypt |date=2019-05-03 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c1KWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT132 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-76474-5 |language=en}}</ref> Management of the area by later Zirid rulers was neglectful as the agricultural economy declined, prompting an increase in banditry among the rural population.<ref name="locfatamids2" /> The relationship between the Zirids their Fatimid overlords varied - in 1016 thousands of [[Shiites]] died in rebellions in Ifriqiya, and the Fatimids encouraged the defection of Tripolitania from the Zirids, but nevertheless the relationship remained close. In 1049 the Zirids broke away completely by adopting Sunni Islam and recognizing the Abbasids of [[Baghdad]] as rightful Caliphs, a move which was popular with the urban [[Arabs]] of Kairouan.<ref name="ihr">Idris H. Roger, L'invasion hilālienne et ses conséquences, in : Cahiers de civilisation médiévale (43), July–September 1968, pp.353-369. [http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/ccmed_0007-9731_1968_num_11_43_1452]</ref><ref name="locfatamids">{{cite web |last=Berry |first=LaVerle |title=Fatamids |url=http://countrystudies.us/libya/10.htm |access-date=5 March 2011 |work=Libya: A Country Study |publisher=Library of Congress}}</ref>

In [[Sicily]] the [[Kalbids]] continued to govern on behalf of the Fatimids but the island descended into political disarray during the 11th century,<ref name="Rizzitano-2007"/> inciting the Zirids to intervene on the island. In 1025 (or 1021<ref name="Granara-2019">{{Cite book |last=Granara |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J2idDwAAQBAJ&dq=zirids+sicily+1036&pg=PA32 |title=Narrating Muslim Sicily: War and Peace in the Medieval Mediterranean World |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-78673-613-0 |pages=32–33 |language=en}}</ref>), al-Mu'izz ibn Badis sent a fleet of 400 ships to the island in response to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] reconquering [[Calabria]] (in southern Italy) from the Muslims, but the fleet was lost in a powerful storm off the coast of [[Pantelleria]].{{sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}<ref name="Granara-2019" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Granara |first=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgEMEAAAQBAJ&dq=zirid+sicily+storm&pg=PT6 |title=Ibn Hamdis the Sicilian: Eulogist for a Falling Homeland |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=201 |isbn=978-1-78607-847-6 |language=en}}</ref> In 1036, the Muslim population of the island request aid from al-Mu'izz to overthrow the Kalbid emir Ahmad ibn Yusuf al-Akhal, whose rule they considered flawed and unjust.<ref name="Rizzitano-2007" /> The request also contained a pledge to recognize al-Mu'izz as their ruler.<ref name="Granara-2019" /> Al-Mu'izz, eager to expand his influence after the fragmentation of Zirid North Africa, accepted and sent his son, 'Abdallah, to the island with a large army.<ref name="Granara-2019" /><ref name="Rizzitano-2007" />{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=174-175}} Al-Akhal, who had been in negotiations with the Byzantines, requested help from them. A Byzantine army intervened and defeated the Zirid army on the island, but it then withdrew to Calabria, allowing 'Abdallah to finish off al-Akhal.<ref name="Rizzitano-2007" /> Al-Akhal was besieged in [[Palermo]] and killed in 1038.<ref name="Granara-2019" /><ref name="Rizzitano-2007" /><ref name="Bosworth-2004b" /> 'Abdallah was subsequently forced to withdraw from the island, either due to the ever-divided Sicilians turning against him or due to another Byzantine invasion in 1038, led by [[George Maniakes]].{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=174-175}}<ref name="Granara-2019" /> Another Kalbid amir, al-Hasan al-Samsam, was elected to govern Sicily, but Muslim rule there disintegrated into various petty factions leading up to the [[Norman conquest of southern Italy|Norman conquest]] of the island in the second half of the 11th century.{{Sfn|Brett|2017|p=175}}<ref name="Rizzitano-2007" /><ref name="Granara-2019" />

==== Hilalian invasions and withdrawal to Mahdia ====
The Zirids renounced the Fatimids and recognized the Abbasid Caliphs in 1048-49,{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}} or sometime between 1041 and 1051.{{sfn|Fage|Oliver|1975|p=15}}<ref name="Bosworth-2004b" />{{efn|Different historical sources give different dates for the occurrence of this decision, ranging from 1041 and 1051.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=68-69}}}} In retaliation, the Fatimids sent the Arab tribes of the [[Banu Hilal]] and the [[Banu Sulaym]] to the Maghreb.{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=69}} The Banu Sulaym settled first in Cyrenaica, but the Banu Hilal continued towards Ifriqiya.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=69}} The Zirids attempted to stop their advance towards Ifriqiya, they sent 30,000 Sanhaja cavalry to meet the 3,000 Arab cavalry of Banu Hilal in the [[Battle of Haydaran]] of 14 April 1052.<ref name="Idris">{{Citation |last=Idris |first=H. R. |title=Ḥaydarān |date=2012-04-24 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/haydaran-SIM_2834 |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |language=en |access-date=2021-09-26}}</ref> Nevertheless, the Zirids were decisively defeated and were forced to retreat, opening the road to Kairouan for the Hilalian Arab cavalry.<ref name="Idris" /><ref name="Idris-1968">{{Cite journal |last=Idris |first=Hady Roger |date=1968 |title=L'invasion hilālienne et ses conséquences |journal=Cahiers de civilisation médiévale |volume=11 |issue=43 |pages=353–369 |doi=10.3406/ccmed.1968.1452 |issn=0007-9731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Schuster |first=Gerald |year=2009 |title=Reviewed work: Die Beduinen in der Vorgeschichte Tunesiens. Die " Invasion " der Banū Hilāl, Gerald Schuster |journal=Arabica |publisher=Brill |volume=56 |issue=4/5 |pages=487–492 |doi=10.1163/057053909X12475581297885 |jstor=25651679}}</ref> The resulting anarchy devastated the previously flourishing agriculture, and the coastal towns assumed a new importance as conduits for maritime trade and bases for piracy against Christian shipping, as well as being the last holdout of the Zirids.<ref name="Idris-1968" /> The [[Hilalian invasion of Ifriqiya|Banu Hilal invasions]] eventually forced al-Mu'izz ibn Badis to abandon Kairouan in 1057 and move his capital to Mahdia, while the Banu Hilal largely roamed and pillaged the interior of the former Zirid territories.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|pp=69-70}}{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}

As a result of the Zirid withdrawal, various local principalities emerged in different areas. In [[Tunis]], the shaykhs of the city elected Abd al-Haqq ibn Abd al-Aziz ibn Khurasan (r. 1059-1095) as local ruler. He founded the local Banu Khurasan dynasty that governed the city thereafter, alternately recognizing the Hammadids or the Zirids as overlords depending on the circumstances.<ref name="Sebag-2007">{{Cite book |last=Sebag |first=P. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |year=1960–2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Tūnis |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref><ref name="Valerian-2021">{{Cite book |last=Valérian |first=Dominique |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=9789004161658 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Khurāsān, Banū |editor-last2=Krämer |editor-first2=Gudrun |editor-last3=Matringe |editor-first3=Denis |editor-last4=Nawas |editor-first4=John |editor-last5=Rowson |editor-first5=Everett}}</ref> In [[Gabès|Qabis]] (Gabès), the Zirid governor, al-Mu'izz ibn Muhammad ibn Walmiya remained loyal until 1062 when, outraged by the expulsion of his two brothers from Mahdia by al-Mu'izz ibn Badis, he declared his independence and placed himself under the protection of Mu'nis ibn Yahya, a chief of Banu Hilal.<ref name="Talbi-2007">{{Cite book |last=Talbi |first=M. |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |year=1960–2007 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Ḳābis |editor-last2=Bianquis |editor-first2=Th. |editor-last3=Bosworth |editor-first3=C.E. |editor-last4=van Donzel |editor-first4=E. |editor-last5=Heinrichs |editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref>{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=38}} [[Sfax|Sfaqus]] (Sfax) was declared independent by the Zirid governor, Mansur al-Barghawati, who was murdered and succeeded by his cousin Hammu ibn Malil al-Barghawati.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=39}}

Al-Mui'zz ibn Badis was succeeded by his son, [[Tamim ibn al-Mu'izz]] (r. 1062-1108), who spent much of his reign attempting to restore Zirid power in the region. In 1063 he repelled a siege of Mahdia by the independent ruler of Sfax while also capturing the important port of [[Sousse|Sus]] (Sousse).{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=31}} Meanwhile, the Hammadid ruler [[Nasir ibn Alnas|al-Nasir ibn 'Alannas]] (r. 1062-1088) began to intervene in Ifriqiya around this time, having his sovereignty recognized in Sfax, Tunis, and Kairouan. Tamim organized a coalition with some of the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaym tribes and succeeded in inflicting a heavy defeat on al-Nasir at the Battle of Sabiba in 1065. The war between the Zirids and Hammadids continued until 1077, when a truce was negotiated, sealed by a marriage between Tamim and one of al-Nasir's daughters.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=31-32}} In 1074 Tamim sent a naval expedition to [[Calabria]] where they ravaged the Italian coasts, plundered [[Nicotera]] and enslaved many of its inhabitants. The next year (1075) another Zirid raid resulted in the capture of [[Mazara del Vallo|Mazara]] in Sicily; however, the Zirid emir rethought his involvement in Sicily and decided to withdraw, abandoning what they had briefly held.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Gordon S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fbdYk0-gisC&pg=PA176 |title=The Norman Conquest of Southern Italy and Sicily |publisher=McFarland |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-7864-5127-2 |pages=176 |language=en}}</ref> In 1087, the Zirid capital, Mahdia, was sacked by the [[Pisa]]ns.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=210}} According to [[Richard Ettinghausen|Ettinghausen]], [[Oleg Grabar|Grabar]], and Jenkins-Madina, the [[Pisa Griffin]] is believed to have been part of the spoils taken during the sack.{{sfn|Ettinghausen|Grabar|Jenkins-Madina|2001|p=302}} In 1083 Mahdia was besieged by a chief of the Banu Hilal, Malik ibn 'Alawi. Unable to take the city, Malik instead turned to Kairouan and captured that city, but Tamim marched out with his entire army and defeated the Banu Hilal forces, at which point he also brought Kairouan back under Zirid control.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32}} He went on to capture Gabès in 1097 and Sfax in 1100.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32}} Gabès, however, soon declared itself independent again under the leadership of the Banu Jami', a family from the Riyahi branch of the Banu Hilal.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=38}}<ref name="Talbi-2007" />

Tamim's son and successor, Yahya ibn Tamim (r. 1108-1116), formally recognized the Fatimid caliphs again and received an emissary from Cairo in 1111.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32}} He captured an important fortress near [[Carthage]] called Iqlibiya and his fleet launched raids against [[Sardinia]] and [[Genoa]], bringing back many captives.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32}} He was assassinated in 1116 and succeeded by his son, 'Ali ibn Yahya (r. 1116-1121).{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32}} 'Ali continued to recognize the Fatimids, receiving another embassy from Cairo in 1118.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32-33}} He imposed his authority on Tunis, but failed to recapture Gabès from its local ruler, Rafi' ibn Jami', whose counterattack he then had to repel from Mahdia.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=32-33}}<ref name="Talbi-2007" /> He was succeeded by his son al-Hasan in 1121, the last Zirid ruler.<ref name="Bosworth-2004b" />

==== End of Zirid rule ====
During the 1130s and 1140s the Normans of Sicily began to capture cities and islands along the coast of Ifriqiya.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=92}} [[Djerba|Jerba]] was captured in 1135 and Tripoli was captured in 1146. In 1148, the Normans captured Sfax, Gabès, and Mahdia.{{Sfn|Abun-Nasr|1987|p=92}}<ref name="Oman-2007"/> In Mahdia, the population was weakened by years of famine and the bulk of the Zirid army was away on another campaign when the Norman fleet, commanded by [[George of Antioch]], arrived off the coast. Al-Hasan decided to abandon the city, leaving it to be occupied, which effectively ended the Zirid dynasty's rule.{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=35}} Al-Hasan fled to the citadel of al-Mu'allaqa near Carthage and stayed there for a several months. He planned to flee to the Fatimid court in Egypt but the Norman fleet blocked his way, so instead he headed west, making for the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohad]] court of '[[Abd al-Mu'min]] in [[Marrakesh]]. He obtained permission from Yahya ibn al-'Aziz, the Hammadid ruler, to cross his territory, but after entering Hammadid territory he was detained and placed under [[house arrest]] in Algiers.{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=35}} When 'Abd al-Mu'min captured Algiers in 1151, he freed al-Hasan, who accompanied him back to Marrakesh. Later, when 'Abd al-Mu'min conquered Mahdia in 1160, placing all of Ifriqiya under Almohad rule, [[Abu'l-Hasan al-Hasan ibn Ali|al-Hasan]] was with him.{{sfn|Baadj|2015|p=56-57}}{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}} 'Abd al-Mu'min appointed him governor of Mahdia, where he remained, residing in the suburb of Zawila, until 'Abd al-Mu'min's death in 1163. The new Almohad caliph, [[Abu Yaqub Yusuf|Abu Ya'qub Yusuf]], subsequently ordered him to come back to Marrakesh, but al-Hasan died along the way in [[Tamasna]] in 1167.{{Sfn|Tibi|2002|p={{page needed|date=April 2023}}}}<ref name="Bosworth-2004b" />