Editing Hamilcar Barca (section)

== Truceless War ==
[[Image:Utica240.PNG|thumb|202x202px|right|Generic description of the strategic situation.]]
The "Undefeated" army now created a unique problem for Carthage. Had Hamilcar suffered a decisive defeat, casualties and prisoners would have diminished their numbers and Carthage would have had an excuse not to pay anything. But now the 20,000 man army had to be paid their full due.

Gisco sensibly sent the troops to Carthage in small groups with intervals in between<ref>Polybius 1.66.2–4</ref> so the government could pay them off without trouble. However, the Carthaginian authorities waited until the whole army had gathered at Carthage, probably by the summer of 241 BC. As the strain on the Punic population increased, Carthaginian authorities then sent them off to Sicca, planning to plead with the whole army to forgo their unpaid wages by pointing out the dire financial situation of Carthage.<ref>Polybius 1.66.5</ref> Hamilcar's former soldiers, who had been kept together only by his personal authority and by the promise of good pay, broke out into open mutiny{{sfn|Caspari|1911|p=877}} once Hanno the Great tried to impose this, and marched on Carthage and encamped at [[Tunis]]. The soldiers refused to accept Hamilcar as an arbitrator, angered by his refusal to accompany his army from Sicily and retiring to Carthage as soon as the treaty with Rome was formalized, and although Carthage at this point conceded to all their demands, things soon boiled over and started the conflict known as the [[Mercenary War]]. The rebels, under Spendius and [[Mathos|Matho]], were joined by 70,000 African subjects of Carthage.<ref>Polybius 1.70.7–9</ref> The rebels divided their forces: detachments were sent to besiege [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] and [[Hippo Regius|Hippo]], while others cut Carthage off from the mainland, probably in the winter of 241 BC or spring of 240 BC.

===Hamilcar recalled===
[[Image:Macar240.PNG|thumb|200x200px|right|Hamilcar's march to Bagrades river]]
Hanno the Great was given command of the Punic army, which was raised from Carthaginian citizens and mercenaries recruited from abroad, plus cavalry squadrons and 100 elephants. Hanno sailed to Utica in the spring of 241 BC, obtained siege equipment from the city and overran the rebel camp, the rebels fleeing before the charging Punic elephants. Hanno, accustomed to fighting Libyans and Numidians, did not anticipate any further trouble and left his army for Utica. However, the rebels regrouped, and observing lax discipline among the Punic troops, launched a surprise sortie and routed the Punic army while Hanno was absent,<ref>Polybius 1.74.9</ref> driving the survivors to Utica and capturing all the baggage. Hanno marshaled his soldiers, but twice failed to engage the rebels under favorable conditions and twice failed to surprise them on other occasions. The Carthaginian government then raised an army of 10,000 soldiers and 70 elephants and put Hamilcar Barca in command. This army was small for leading a sortie against the stronger rebel forces, especially to lead into a pitched battle. The Carthaginians needed to gain the far side of the Bagradas, so they could manoeuvre freely, but lacked the strength to force a crossing against the superior rebel force guarding against this.{{sfn|Hoyos|2007|pp=111–112}} Hanno posted his army near [[Bizerte|Hippo Acra]], where Matho's army was besieging the town.<ref>Polybius 1.73.1, 75.2</ref>

====Battle of Macar River====
{{main|Battle of the Bagradas River (239 BC)}}
[[Image:Macar1.PNG|182x182px|right|thumb|Battle of Macar 240 BC. Battle of Bagradas, single column scenario]]

The rebels held the hills to the west of Carthage and the only bridge across the [[Bagradas river]] leading to Utica.<ref>Polybius 1.75.5</ref> Hamilcar observed that wind blowing from a certain direction uncovered a sandbar at the river mouth that was fordable and, under cover of night, the Punic army left Carthage and crossed the river. Hamilcar aimed to attack the small rebel band holding the bridge, but Spendius led the rebel force besieging Utica to confront Hamilcar. The Carthaginian army was caught in a pincer movement; Hamilcar pretended to retreat, and Spendius likely attempted to trap the outnumbered Carthaginians against the river with his two forces, pinning them with one and [[Flanking maneuver|out-flanking]] them with the other. When his troops rushed towards the retreating Carthaginians, Spendius was either unable to control them or believed that the Carthaginians were fleeing and encouraged his forces' pursuit.{{sfn|Hoyos|2007|p=122}} Hamilcar had managed to train his new recruits in some [[Foot drill|drill]] and basic battlefield maneuvers before they left Carthage.{{sfn|Hoyos|2007|p=116}} As the two rebel forces came into clear sight the Carthaginians wheeled, and [[Withdrawal (military)|marched away]]. The Carthaginians were marching in good order so they could perform a pre-planned manoeuvre which they had practiced in Carthage, but the rebels, many of whom were inexperienced soldiers, believed that the Carthaginians were running away. Shouting encouragement to each other they broke into a run to pursue.{{sfn|Hoyos|2007|pp=118, 117–118, 122–123}} Hamilcar unleashed his trap as the disorderly rebels closed on his formation. As the cavalry and then the elephants came closer to the infantry Hamilcar ordered each in turn to also wheel about to face the rebels.{{sfn|Hoyos|2007|p=123}} The modern historian Dexter Hoyos stresses that "[s]uch manoeuvres were about the simplest that any army could learn, once it mastered the absolute basics of marching in formation".{{sfn|Hoyos|2007|p=123}}

It is not exactly known how Hamilcar managed to outwit the rebels. According to one line of thought,<ref name="Bagnall, Nigel pp. 116">Bagnall, Nigel, ''The Punic Wars'', pp. 116–117</ref> the Carthaginian army order of march had the [[War Elephant]]s leading the column, with the light troops and cavalry behind the elephants. Heavy infantry formed the rearguard, and the whole army marched in a single file in battle formation.<ref name="Bagnall, Nigel pp. 116"/>

[[Image:Macar2.PNG|182x182px|right|thumb|Battle of Macar 240 BC. Battle of Bagradas, triple column scenario.]]
According to another line of thought,<ref name="Dodge, T.A, Hannibal, p. 135">Dodge, T.A, ''Hannibal'', p. 135</ref> Hamilcar’s army marched in three separate columns, with the war elephants placed nearest the rebel army. The cavalry and light infantry were in the middle, while the heavy infantry was posted furthest from the rebel army.<ref name="Dodge, T.A, Hannibal, p. 135"/>

Through brilliant maneuvering, Hamilcar inflicted a heavy defeat on the rebel forces, leading to the killing of 8,000 mercenaries and the capturing of 2,000 men.<ref>Polybius 1.76.4–5</ref> Hamilcar occupied the bridge, then established control over the surrounding region. Some of the surviving rebels fled towards Utica; others, after being driven from their camp near the bridge, fled to Tunis.

===Hamilcar trapped===
Hamilcar's victory opened communication with [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]], and gave Hamilcar the chance to bring nearby towns under Carthaginian control by force or negotiations. He made no attempt to join Hanno near Utica. Spendius rallied his forces, was reinforced by a detachment largely made of Gauls under [[Autaritus]] and shadowed Hamilcar as he advanced south east, keeping to the high ground to avoid Carthaginian elephants and cavalry and harassing their enemy at every possible opportunity. These "[[Fabian tactics]]" continued until Hamilcar encamped in a valley, probably near Nepheris, and the rebels trapped his army, with the Libyans blocking the exit, Spendius and his troops camping near the Punic army and the Numidians covering Hamilcar's rear. Hamilcar's army was saved by pure luck – a Numidian chieftain, [[Naravas]], who would later marry Hamilcar's third daughter, defected with 2,000 horsemen. Hamilcar exited the valley and, after [[Hamilcar's victory with Navaras|a hard-fought battle]], defeated the army of Spendius. The rebel loss was 8,000 dead with 4,000 captured. Hamilcar offered the prisoners a choice – to join his army, or leave Africa with the condition never to take up arms against Carthage. The new joiners were armed with equipment captured from the rebels. By winter of 240 BC, the situation had improved for Carthage.

====Beginning of atrocities====
Rebel leaders feared mass desertions might result because of Hamilcar's policy towards prisoners. To forestall any such event, rebels committed an act of cruelty unpardonable by Carthage. Autaritus spread the rumor that Carthaginian prisoners led by Gisco were plotting to escape. Rebels opposing this were stoned and Gisco and his fellow prisoners were tortured to death. Autaritus announced that he would do the same with all Punic prisoners that fell into rebel hands in future. Hamilcar killed his prisoners and announced a policy of equal measure toward future rebel prisoners, thus ending any chance of desertion from the rebel army and the truceless war began in earnest.

===Triple trouble and revival===
[[File:Libyan Revolt, shekel, 241-238 BC.jpg|thumb|A [[Carthaginian coinage|Carthaginian]] [[shekel]] dated to the [[Mercenary War]], circa 241-238 BC, from an uncertain mint in [[North Africa]]; the head of [[Heracles]] is shown on the [[obverse]], wearing the [[Nemean lion]] skin, while a standing lion is featured on the reverse.]]

Carthage was hit by a series of disasters in 239 BC: her fleet and supply flotilla bringing supplies from Empoia was sunk in a storm, the mercenaries in Sardinia rebelled and the cities of Utica and Hippo Acra killed their Punic garrisons and defected to the rebels. Carthage sent an expedition to Sardinia under Hanno, but this force killed their officers and joined the rebels. Furthermore, Hamilcar had invited Hanno the Great to join forces and try to end the rebellion as quickly as possible, but the generals failed to cooperate.

The gloomy situation changed when first Syracuse and then Rome came to the aid of Carthage. Syracuse redoubled the volume of supplies sent to Carthage. Rome forbade Italian traders to trade with rebels and encouraged trade with Carthage, freed Punic prisoners without ransom, and allowed Carthage to recruit mercenaries from Roman territories and flatly refused the invitation from Utica, Hippo and Sardinia to occupy these areas. Finally, when the Carthaginian Senate was unable to decide between Hamilcar and Hanno, the people's assembly left it to the army to decide on their Commander in Chief, and Hamilcar Barca was elected to sole command.<ref>Polybius 1.82.5</ref> The people's assembly chose Hannibal of Paropos, son of another Hamilcar and a veteran of the First Punic War as Hamilcar's deputy.

===Carthage blockaded===
While Carthage was busy settling state affairs, Spendius and Matho decided to blockade the city from the landward side. However, as the rebels had no navy, Carthage could draw supplies from the sea and so did not face the threat of starvation. But the rebels would sally out from their camp at Tunis and approach the city walls to cause terror inside the city.<ref>Polybius 1.73.7</ref> In response, Hamilcar began to harass the rebel supply lines and soon the rebels were placed in a state of siege. Spendius and Matho were joined by a force commanded by a Libyan chief named Zarzas, and the 50,000 strong army under Spendius moved away from Carthage.<ref>Polybius 1.84.3</ref> Using tactics later made famous by Q. Fabius against Hannibal, Hamilcar's eldest son, the rebels shadowed Hamilcar's army, while moving south, harassing his soldiers and keeping to the high ground to avoid Carthaginian elephants and cavalry. After weeks of maneuvering, Hamilcar finally managed to trap about 40,000 rebels in a valley surrounded on three sides by mountains.<ref>Polybius 1.85.7</ref>

====The Gorge of the Saw====
{{main|Battle of "The Saw"}}
The exact location of this valley has never been conclusively identified. It was probably some distance from Carthage because, while Hamilcar blockaded the valley exits and waited for the rebels to starve, Matho's army at Tunis did not intervene although the trapped rebels held out awaiting his arrival. After the trapped rebels ran out of food, pack animals and cavalry horses and finally resorted to cannibalism, Spendius, Autaritus and Zarzas, accompanied by seven others, went to Hamilcar's camp to seek terms. Hamilcar offered to allow all the rebels to depart freely with a single garment, but retained the right to detain 10 persons. When the rebel leaders agreed to the terms, Hamilcar detained the rebel delegation. Deprived of leadership, and unaware of the pact, the mercenaries suspected treachery; the Libyans were the first to attack Hamilcar's positions.<ref>Polybius 1.85.6</ref> The rebel army was slaughtered, with the elephants trampling most to death.

===Setback in Tunis===
[[File:Punic gilded bronze cuirass AvL.JPG|thumb|255x255px|[[Carthage|Carthaginian]] Armor of the [[Ksour Essef cuirass|Ksour Essef]] 3rd century BC]]
Hamilcar next moved to confront the army of Matho at Tunis. He divided his army: Hannibal took half of the soldiers and camped to the north of Tunis, while Hamilcar camped to the south, thus hemming in Matho's army in Tunis. Hamilcar crucified Spendius and other rebel hostages outside Tunis to terrorize Matho, but this backfired when the rebels were able to surprise and defeat Hannibal's army due to their lax discipline. Punic survivors fled, and all their baggage was captured along with Hannibal and thirty Carthaginian senators.<ref>Polybius 1.86.7</ref> Hamilcar retreated north near the mouth of the Bagradas River, while Matho crucified his prisoners on the same crosses Hamilcar had used to crucify the rebel leaders, then retreated out of Tunis and moved south.

At this point, the Carthaginian senate reinstated Hanno and forced Hamilcar to share command.<ref>Polybius 1.87.3</ref> The Punic generals pursued Matho's army and won several small-scale engagements. After mustering their forces, a decisive battle was fought probably near the town of [[Leptis Minor]]. The Carthaginians destroyed the rebel army, after which the Libyan towns submitted to Carthage. When Utica and Hippo Acra held out, Hanno and Hamilcar besieged them, eventually receiving their surrender on terms. By the winter of 238 BC, the Mercenary revolt was over. Hanno and Hamilcar unleashed reprisals against the Numidian tribes that had sided with the rebels,<ref>Diodorus Siculus 24.33</ref> and the generals probably extended Carthaginian territory in Africa at the same time.<ref>Cornelius Nepos, Hamilcar 2.5</ref> Carthage now began to fit out an expedition to recover Sardinia, with Hamilcar commanding Punic forces.

====Sardinia====
Punic Mercenaries stationed in Sardinia had rebelled in 239 BC, besieged Boaster and all Carthaginians in a citadel and later executed them after the fort fell. They managed to take over all Punic territories in Sardinia. Carthage sent a mercenary force under Hanno to retake the island in 239 BC, but this group also rebelled, killing Hanno and their Carthaginian officers and joining the rebels in Sardinia. The rebels requested Rome to take over Sardinia, which was turned down. Their heavy handedness with Sardinian natives caused native Sardinians to attack and expel the mercenaries by 237 BC. The expelled mercenaries took refuge in Italy and again requested Rome to take over Sardinia.

Rome, which had dealt with Carthage with all due honor and courtesy during the crisis, going as far as to release all Punic prisoners without ransom and refuse to accept offers from [[Utica, Tunisia|Utica]] and Rebels mercenaries based in Sardinia to incorporate these territories into the Roman domain, seized Sardinia and Corsica and forced Carthage to pay 1,200 talents for her initial refusal to renounce her claim over the islands.<ref>Goldsworthy, Adrian, ''The Fall of Carthage'', pp. 135–136 {{ISBN|1-85728-136-5}}</ref> This probably dealt a fatal blow to any chance of permanent peace between Rome and Carthage<ref>Lazenby, J.F, The First Punic War, p. 175</ref> and is one of the causes of the [[Second Punic War]] and held as the motivation of the subsequent military and political activities of Hamilcar.<ref name="Polybius 3.10.4">Polybius 3.10.4</ref>