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== Origin == On July 4, 1776, the same day that independence from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] was declared by the thirteen colonies, the [[Second Continental Congress|Continental Congress]] named the first committee to design a Great Seal, or national emblem, for the country. Similar to other nations, the United States needed an official symbol of sovereignty to formalize and seal (or sign) international treaties and transactions. It took six years, three committees, and the contributions of fourteen men before the [[Congress of the Confederation|Congress]] finally accepted a design (which included elements proposed by each of the three committees) in 1782.<ref name="statepub">{{cite web |url = https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf |title = The Great Seal of the United States |publisher = [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]] |author = Bureau of Public Affairs |access-date = February 3, 2009 |archive-date = July 30, 2021 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210730155253/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/27807.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref> ===First committee=== {{multiple image | width = 200 | image1 = FirstCommitteeGreatSealObverseLossingDrawing.jpg | image2 = FirstCommitteeGreatSealReverseLossingDrawing.jpg | footer = Interpretation of the first committee's seal proposal, made by [[Benson John Lossing|Benson Lossing]] in 1856. The obverse drawing is slightly incorrect; the linked state initials should be on the shield itself. }} The first committee consisted of [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Thomas Jefferson]], and [[John Adams]]. While they were three of the five primary authors of the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]], they had little experience in [[heraldry]] and sought the help of [[Pierre Eugene du Simitiere]], an artist living in Philadelphia who would later also design the state seals of Delaware and New Jersey and start a museum of the Revolutionary War. Each of these men proposed a design for the seal. Franklin chose an allegorical scene from [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]], described in his notes as "[[Moses]] standing on the Shore, and extending his Hand over the Sea, thereby causing the same to overwhelm [[Pharaoh]] who is sitting in an open Chariot, a Crown on his Head and a Sword in his Hand. Rays from a [[Pillar of Fire (theophany)|Pillar of Fire]] in the Clouds reaching to Moses, to express that he acts by Command of the Deity." Motto, "Rebellion to Tyrants is Obedience to God." Jefferson suggested a depiction of the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]] in the wilderness, led by a cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night for the front of the seal; and [[Hengist and Horsa|Hengest and Horsa]], the two brothers who were the legendary leaders of the first [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlers in [[Great Britain|Britain]], for the reverse side of the seal. Adams chose a painting known as the "Judgment of Hercules" where the young [[Hercules]] must choose to travel either on the flowery path of self-indulgence or the rugged, more difficult, uphill path of duty to others and honor to himself.<ref name="gsfirst">{{cite web |url = http://www.greatseal.com/committees/firstcomm/index.html |title = First Great Seal Committee: July–August 1776 |publisher = greatseal.com |first = John D. |last = MacArthur |access-date = February 3, 2009 |archive-date = October 2, 2023 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231002225748/http://www.greatseal.com/committees/firstcomm/index.html |url-status = live }}</ref> {{multiple image | direction = vertical | align = left | width = 160 | image1 = Great Seal du Simitiere proposal sketch.jpg | image2 = Continental Currency One-Third-Dollar 17-Feb-76 rev.jpg | footer = du Simitiere's initial sketch, and Franklin's earlier design on a 1776 currency note | image3 = First rejected U.S. coat of arms.svg }} In August 1776, du Simitière showed his design, which was more along conventional heraldic lines. The shield had six sections, each representing "the Countries from which these States have been peopled" (using the symbols for [[Tudor rose|England]], [[Thistle#Scottish thistle|Scotland]], [[Coat of arms of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Fleur-de-lis|France]], [[Coat of arms of Germany#Holy Roman Empire|Germany]], and [[Dutch Republic Lion|Holland]]), surrounded by the initials of all thirteen states. The [[supporters]] were a female figure representing [[Liberty (personification)|Liberty]] holding an anchor of hope and a spear with a [[Phrygian cap|cap]], and on the other side an American soldier holding a rifle and tomahawk. The [[crest (heraldry)|crest]] was the "[[Eye of Providence]] in a radiant Triangle whose [[Halo (religious iconography)|Glory]] extends over the Shield and beyond the Figures", and the motto ''[[E Pluribus Unum]]'' (Out of Many, One) in a scroll at the bottom.<ref name="ahdesign">{{cite web |url = http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=Official.NatDev1 |title = The Arms of the USA: Development of the Design |access-date = February 3, 2009 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090624214853/http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=Official.NatDev1 |archive-date = June 24, 2009 |df = mdy-all }}</ref> On August 20, 1776, the committee presented their report to Congress. The committee members chose du Simitière's design, though it was changed to remove the anchor of hope and replace the soldier with [[Lady Justice]] holding a sword and a balance. Surrounding the main elements was the inscription "Seal of the United States of America MDCCLXXVI". For the reverse, Franklin's design of Moses parting the Red Sea was used. Congress was however not impressed, and on the same day ordered that the report "[[Table (parliamentary)|lie on the table]]", ending the work of the committee.<ref name="heraldica">{{cite web |url = http://www.heraldica.org/topics/usa/usheroff.htm |title = Official Heraldry of the United States |access-date = February 3, 2009 |archive-date = February 6, 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090206143610/http://heraldica.org/topics/usa/usheroff.htm |url-status = live }}</ref> [[File:GentlemansMagazine1737Vol7.jpg|thumb|1737 ''[[Gentleman's Magazine]]'' title page]] While the designs in their entirety were not used, the ''E Pluribus Unum'' motto was chosen for the final seal, and the reverse used the Roman numeral for 1776 and the Eye of Providence. Jefferson also liked Franklin's motto so much, he ended up using it on his personal seal.<ref name="gsfirst"/> The motto was almost certainly taken from the title page of ''[[The Gentleman's Magazine|Gentleman's Magazine]]'', a monthly magazine published in London which had used it from its first edition in 1731, and was well known in the colonies.<ref name="statepub"/> The motto alluded to the magazine being a collection of articles obtained from other newspapers, and was used in most of its editions until 1833. The motto was taken in turn from ''Gentleman's Journal'', a similar magazine which ran briefly from 1692 to 1694. While variants turn up in other places (for example a poem often ascribed to [[Virgil]] called ''Moretum'' contains the phrase ''E Pluribus Unus''), this is the oldest known use of the exact phrase.<ref name="ahsource">{{cite web |url = http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=Official.National |title = The Arms of the USA: Blazon and Symbolism |access-date = February 3, 2009 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071017200215/http://americanheraldry.org/pages/index.php?n=Official.National |archive-date = October 17, 2007 |df = mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="tottenv2">{{cite book |last = Totten |first = C.A.L. |author-link = C. A. L. Totten |title = The Seal of History, Vol II |year = 1897 |url = https://archive.org/details/sealofhistoryour02tottiala |pages = [https://archive.org/details/sealofhistoryour02tottiala/page/122 122]–3 }}</ref> Another source was some of the [[Continental (currency)|Continental currency]] issued earlier in 1776; these were designed by Franklin and featured the motto ''We Are One'' surrounded by thirteen rings, each with the name of a colony.<ref name="franklincurr">{{cite web |url = http://www.coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyText/CC-02-17-76.html |title = Continental Currency: February 17, 1776 |last = Jordan |first = Louis |publisher = University of Notre Dame |access-date = February 3, 2009 |archive-date = December 25, 2008 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081225064830/http://www.coins.nd.edu/ColCurrency/CurrencyText/CC-02-17-76.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref name="gsmoney">{{cite web |url = http://www.greatseal.com/mottoes/unummoney.html |title = Symbols of Unity on Continental Currency |publisher = greatseal.com |first = John D. |last = MacArthur |access-date = February 3, 2009 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> This design is echoed in the seal submitted by the first committee, and the motto was quite possibly a Latin version of this concept.<ref name="tottenv2"/> The [[Eye of Providence]] had been a well-known classical symbol of the deity since at least the [[Renaissance]], which du Simitiere was familiar with.<ref name="eagleshieldeye">[https://archive.org/stream/TheEagleAndTheShield/The%20Eagle%20and%20the%20Shield#page/n577/mode/2up ''The Eagle and the Shield'', p. 531]. Some examples include the [[Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc|Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc, Czech Republic]] built from 1716–1754 (seen [[:File:Holy Trinity Column - Love.jpg|here]]), the [[Gate of Dawn]] in Vilnius, built between 1503 and 1522 (seen [[:File:Vilnius Dawn Gate.jpg|here]]), the [[Aachen Cathedral]] (seen [[:File:Allsehendes Auge am Tor des Aachener Dom.JPG|here]], inscription dated 1766), the [[:File:Morgagni adversaria anatomica omnia 1762.jpg|cover of a 1762 book]] by [[Giovanni Battista Morgagni]], or the 1789 French [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] (seen [[:File:Declaration of Human Rights.jpg|here]]).</ref><ref name="totten"/> ===Second committee=== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = HopkinsonGreatSealDesignObverse.jpg | width1 = 200 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = HopkinsonGreatSealDesignReverse.jpg | width2 = 200 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Second committee's seal proposal, drawn by Francis Hopkinson | image3 = 2nd Rejected US Coat of Arms.svg }} For three and a half years no further action was taken, during which time the Continental Congress was forced out of Philadelphia before returning in 1778. On March 25, 1780, a second committee to design a great seal was formed, which consisted of [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]], [[John Morin Scott]], and [[William Churchill Houston]]. Like the first committee, they sought the help of someone more experienced in heraldry, this time [[Francis Hopkinson]], who did most of the work.<ref name="gs2nd">{{cite web |url = http://greatseal.com/committees/secondcomm/index.html |title = Second Great Seal Committee: March 1780 |publisher = greatseal.com |first = John D. |last = MacArthur |access-date = February 3, 2009 }}</ref> Hopkinson, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, designed the American flag,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/TheEagleAndTheShield/The%20Eagle%20and%20the%20Shield#page/n77/mode/2up ''The Eagle and the Shield'', pp. 34–35] "He created the American flag that Congress adopted on June 14, 1777."</ref> and also helped design state and other government seals. He made two similar proposals, each having an obverse and reverse side, with themes of war and peace.<ref name="ahdesign"/> Hopkinson's first design had a shield with thirteen diagonal red and white stripes, supported on one side by a figure bearing an olive branch and representing peace, and on the other an Indian warrior holding a bow and arrow, and holding a quiver. The crest was a radiant constellation of thirteen stars. The motto was ''Bello vel pace paratus'', meaning "prepared in war or in peace". The reverse, in Hopkinson's words, was "Liberty is seated in a chair holding an olive branch and her [[Liberty pole|staff]] is topped by a [[phrygian cap|Liberty cap]]. The motto 'Virtute perennis' means 'Everlasting because of virtue.' The date in Roman numerals is 1776."<ref name="ahdesign"/><ref name="gs2nd"/> {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = HopkinsonPrelimGreatSealDesignObverse.jpg | width1 = 200 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = HopkinsonPrelimGreatSealDesignReverse.jpg | width2 = 200 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Hopkinson's first proposal }} In his second proposal, the Indian warrior was replaced by a soldier holding a sword, and the motto was shortened to ''Bello vel paci'', meaning "For war or for peace".<ref name="gs2nd"/> The committee chose the second version, and reported back to Congress on May 10, 1780, six weeks after being formed. Their final blazon, printed in Congress journals on May 17, was: "The Shield charged on the Field Azure with 13 diagonal stripes alternate rouge and argent. Supporters; dexter, a Warriour holding a Sword; sinister, a Figure representing Peace bearing an Olive Branch. The Crest; a radiant Constellation of 13 Stars. The motto, Bella vel Paci."<ref name="ahdesign"/> Once again, Congress did not find the result acceptable.<ref name="statepub"/> They referred the matter back to the committee, which did no further work on the matter.<ref name="ahdesign"/> As with the first design, several elements were eventually used in the final seal; the thirteen stripes on the shield with their colors, the constellation of stars surrounded by clouds, the olive branch, and the arrows (from Hopkinson's first proposal).<ref name="statepub"/> Hopkinson had previously used the constellation and clouds on a $40 [[Continental currency]] note he designed in 1778. The same note also used an Eye of Providence, taken from the first committee's design.<ref name="gsmoney"/> The shield of the Great Seal has seven white stripes and six red ones—essentially, a white background with six red stripes. Hopkinson incorporated this stripe arrangement into the Great Seal from the [[Flag of the United States]] that he had designed. Hopkinson also designed a seal for the Admiralty (Navy), which incorporated a chevron consisting of seven red stripes and six white ones. The seven red stripes in his Admiralty seal reflected the number of red stripes in his Naval flag. When Hopkinson designed these flags, he was running the Navy as chairman of the Continental Navy Board.<ref>{{cite journal |last1 = Williams |first1 = Earl P. Jr. |title = Did Francis Hopkinson Design Two Flags? |journal = NAVA News |date = October 2012 |issue = 216 |pages = 7–9 |url = http://www.flagguys.com/pdf/NAVANews_2012_no216.pdf |access-date = February 16, 2017 |archive-date = March 6, 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160306083443/http://www.flagguys.com/pdf/NAVANews_2012_no216.pdf |url-status = live }}</ref> ===Third committee=== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = BartonGreatSealDesignObverse.jpg | width1 = 216 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = BartonGreatSealDesignReverse.jpg | width2 = 178 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = Third committee's proposal, drawn by William Barton | image3 = 3rd Rejected US Coat of Arms.svg }} After two more years, Congress formed a third committee on May 4, 1782, this time consisting of [[John Rutledge]], [[Arthur Middleton]], and [[Elias Boudinot]]. [[Arthur Lee (diplomat)|Arthur Lee]] replaced Rutledge, although he was not officially appointed. As with the previous two committees, most of the work was delegated to a heraldic expert, this time 28-year-old [[William Barton (heraldist)|William Barton]].<ref name="statepub"/><ref name="gs3rd">{{cite web |url = http://www.greatseal.com/committees/thirdcomm/index.html |title = Third Great Seal Committee: May 1782 |publisher = greatseal.com |first = John D. |last = MacArthur |access-date = February 3, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130125062919/http://www.greatseal.com/committees/thirdcomm/index.html |archive-date= 25 January 2013 }}</ref> Barton drew a design very quickly, using a rooster on the crest, but it was much too complex. No drawing of this design seems to have survived.<ref name="ahdesign"/><ref name="gs3rd"/> [[File:Continental $50 note 1778 pyramid.jpg|thumb|left|[[Francis Hopkinson|Hopkinson's]] pyramid from 1778]] Barton then came up with another design, which the committee submitted back to Congress on May 9, 1782, just five days after being formed. This time, the figures on each side of the shield were the "[[Genius (mythology)|Genius]] of the American Confederated Republic" represented by a maiden, and on the other side an American warrior. At the top is an eagle and on the pillar in the shield is a "Phoenix in Flames". The mottos were ''In Vindiciam Libertatis'' (In Defense of Liberty) and ''Virtus sola invicta'' (Only virtue unconquered).<ref name="gs3rd"/> For the reverse, Barton used a [[pyramid]] of thirteen [[step pyramid|steps]], with the radiant Eye of Providence overhead, and used the mottos ''Deo Favente'' ("With God favoring") and ''Perennis'' (Everlasting).<ref name="gs3rd"/> The pyramid had come from another Continental currency note designed in 1778 by Hopkinson, this time the $50 note, which had a nearly identical pyramid and the motto ''Perennis''.<ref name="gs3rd"/> Barton had at first specified "on the Summit of it a Palm Tree, proper", with the explanation that "The Palm Tree, when burnt down to the very Root, naturally rises fairer than ever," but later crossed it out and replaced it with the Eye of Providence, taken from the first committee's design.<ref name="gs3rdblazon">{{cite web |url = http://www.greatseal.com/committees/thirdcomm/bartonblazon.html |title = Heraldic Description of Third Committee's Great Seal Design |publisher = greatseal.com |first = John D. |last = MacArthur |access-date = February 3, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130124200854/http://www.greatseal.com/committees/thirdcomm/bartonblazon.html |archive-date=24 January 2013 }}</ref> Congress again took no action on the submitted design. ===Final design=== {{multiple image | align = right | image1 = GreatSealThomsonReportPage1.jpg | width1 = 181 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = GreatSealThomsonReportPage2.jpg | width2 = 180 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = [[Charles Thomson]]'s report to Congress, which was accepted and is still the law today }} On June 13, 1782, the Congress turned to its Secretary [[Charles Thomson]], and provided all material submitted by the first three committees.<ref name="statepub"/> Thomson was 53 years old, and had been a Latin master at a Philadelphia academy.<ref name="gsfinal">{{cite web |url = http://www.greatseal.com/committees/finaldesign/index.html |title = The Final Design of the Great Seal: June 20, 1782 |publisher = greatseal.com |first = John D. |last = MacArthur |access-date = February 3, 2009 }}</ref> Thomson took elements from all three previous committees, coming up with a new design which provided the basis for the final seal.<ref name="statepub"/> Thomson used the eagle—this time specifying an American [[bald eagle]]—as the sole supporter on the shield. The shield had thirteen stripes, this time in a [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]] pattern, and the eagle's claws held an olive branch and a bundle of thirteen arrows. For the crest, he used Hopkinson's constellation of thirteen stars. The motto was ''E Pluribus Unum'', taken from the first committee, and was on a scroll held in the eagle's beak.<ref name="statepub"/><ref name="gsfinal"/> An eagle holding symbols of war and peace has a long history, and also echoed the second committee's themes. Franklin owned a 1702 [[emblem book]], which included an eagle with olive branch and arrows near its talons, which may have been a source for Thomson.<ref name="ahsource"/> The arrows also mirror those in the arms of the [[Dutch Republic]], the only country in Europe with a representative government at the time, which depicted a lion holding seven arrows representing their seven provinces.<ref name="heraldica"/><ref name="ahsource"/> State currency may have provided further inspiration; a 1775 South Carolina bill showed a bundle of 13 arrows and a 1775 Maryland note depicted a hand with an olive branch of 13 leaves.<ref name="hunt1909">{{cite book |last = Hunt |first = Gaillard |author-link = Gaillard Hunt |title = The History of the Seal of the United States |year = 1909 |publisher = United States Department of State |location = Washington, D.C. |url = https://www.questia.com/read/1518543 |oclc = 2569489 |access-date = August 29, 2017 |archive-date = April 26, 2011 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110426070350/http://www.questia.com/read/1518543 |url-status = live }}</ref> {{multiple image | align = left | image1 = US Great Seal Charles Thomson Preliminary Design.jpg | width1 = 200 | alt1 = | caption1 = | image2 = 4th Rejected US Coat of Arms.svg | width2 = 200 | alt2 = | caption2 = | footer = [[Charles Thomson|Thomson's]] drawing, the basis for the final seal }} For the reverse, Thomson essentially kept Barton's design, but re-added the triangle around the Eye of Providence and changed the mottos to ''Annuit Cœptis''<ref>Gardiner, Richard. (2024). [https://agcjournal.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/AGC-Journal-Vol-4-No-1-Spring-2024.pdf "Annuit Coeptis," ''AGC Journal'' (Spring 2024) Volume 4, No. 1, p. 13ff.]</ref> and ''Novus Ordo Seclorum''.<ref name="gsfinal"/> Thomson sent his designs back to Barton, who made some final alterations. The stripes on the shield were changed again, this time to "[[Pale (heraldry)|palewise]]" (vertical), and the eagle's wing position was changed to "displayed" (wingtips up) instead of "rising". Barton also wrote a more properly heraldic blazon.<ref name="statepub"/> The design was submitted to Congress on June 20, 1782, and was accepted the same day. Thomson included a page of explanatory notes, but no drawing was submitted. This remains the official definition of the Great Seal today.<ref name="statepub"/> [[File:WashingtonNegotiatingAuthorizationSept1782.jpg|thumb|First sealed document]] The first brass die was cut sometime between June and September, and placed in the State House in Philadelphia. It was first used by Thomson on September 16, 1782, to verify signatures on a document which authorized [[George Washington]] to negotiate an exchange of prisoners. Charles Thomson, as the secretary of Congress, remained the [[keeper of the seal]] until the [[Federal government of the United States|federal government]] was formed in 1789.<ref name="statepub"/> On July 24, 1789, President Washington asked Thomson to deliver the seal to the Department of Foreign Affairs in the person of Roger Alden, who kept it until the Department of State was created.<ref name="hunt1909"/> All subsequent secretaries of state have been responsible for applying the seal to diplomatic documents. On September 15, 1789, the [[United States Congress]] ordered "that the seal heretofore used by the United States in Congress assembled, shall be, and hereby is declared to be, the seal of the United States."<ref name="ahcritic"/><ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001/llsl001.db&recNum=191 Chap. XIV. 1 Stat. 68] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904071929/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llsl&fileName=001%2Fllsl001.db&recNum=191 |date=September 4, 2015 }} from [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/ "A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774–1875"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406043000/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/ |date=April 6, 2012 }}. [[Library of Congress]], [[Law Library of Congress]]. Retrieved March 24, 2012.</ref> *'''First committee''' **''[[E Pluribus Unum]]'' **[[Eye of Providence]] in a triangle **1776 in Roman numerals *'''Second committee''' **Thirteen red and white stripes and blue chief on shield **Constellation of 13 stars, surrounded by clouds and glory **War and peace theme, including olive branch and (on first draft) arrows *'''Third committee''' **Eagle (though not a bald eagle) **Unfinished pyramid **Overall design of the reverse *'''Charles Thomson''' **Overall design of the obverse **Bald eagle **''[[Annuit Cœptis]]'' **''[[Novus Ordo Seclorum]]'' *'''William Barton''' **Vertical stripes on shield **Position of eagle's wings
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