Editing Fidel Castro (section)

==Provisional government==
{{Main|Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution}}
{{Further|Political career of Fidel Castro}}

===Consolidating leadership: 1959===
{{Main|Agrarian reforms in Cuba|Revolution first, elections later}}
{{See also|Huber Matos affair}}
At Castro's command, the politically moderate lawyer [[Manuel Urrutia Lleó]] was proclaimed provisional president but Castro announced (falsely) that Urrutia had been selected by "popular election". Most of Urrutia's cabinet were MR-26-7 members.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=153, 161}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=216}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=126, 141–142}}.</ref> Entering Havana, Castro proclaimed himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency, setting up home and office in the penthouse of the [[Hotel Tryp Habana Libre|Havana Hilton Hotel]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=164}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=144}}.</ref> Castro exercised a great deal of influence over Urrutia's regime, which was now [[ruling by decree]]. He ensured that the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy and that it attempted to remove Batistanos from positions of power by dismissing Congress and barring all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 from future office. He then pushed Urrutia to issue a temporary ban on political parties; he repeatedly said that they would eventually hold multiparty elections.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=171–172}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=217, 222}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=150–154}}.</ref> Although repeatedly denying that he was a communist to the press, he began clandestinely meeting members of the PSP to discuss the creation of a socialist state.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=166, 170}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=251}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=145}}.</ref>

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=We are not executing innocent people or political opponents. We are executing murderers and they deserve it.|source=– Castro's response to his critics regarding the mass executions, 1959<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=168}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=149}}.</ref> }}

In suppressing the revolution, Batista's government had killed thousands of Cubans; Castro and influential sectors of the press put the death toll at 20,000, but a list of victims published shortly after the revolution contained only 898 names—over half of them combatants.{{sfnm|1a1=Wickham-Crowley|1y=1990|1pp=63–64|2a1=Guerra|2y=2012|2p=43}} More recent estimates place the death toll between 1,000{{sfn|Wickham-Crowley|1990|p=63}} and 4,000.{{sfn|Guerra|2012|p=43}} In response to popular uproar, which demanded that those responsible be brought to justice, Castro helped to set up many trials, resulting in hundreds of executions. Although popular domestically, critics—in particular the US press, argued that many were not [[fair trial]]s. Castro responded that "revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts, but on moral conviction."<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=163, 167–169}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=224–230}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=147–149}}.</ref>
Acclaimed by many across Latin America, he travelled to Venezuela where he met with President-elect [[Rómulo Betancourt]], unsuccessfully requesting a loan and a new deal for Venezuelan oil.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=169–170}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=225–226}}.</ref> Returning home, an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out. He was infuriated that the government had left thousands unemployed by closing down casinos and brothels. As a result, Prime Minister [[José Miró Cardona]] resigned, going into exile in the US and joining the anti-Castro movement.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=277}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=154}}.</ref>

On 16 February 1959, Castro was sworn in as [[Prime Minister of Cuba]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=173}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=228}}.</ref> Castro also appointed himself president of the National Tourist Industry, introducing unsuccessful measures to encourage African-American tourists to visit, advertising Cuba as a tropical paradise free of [[racial discrimination]].<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=262–269, 281}}.</ref> Judges and politicians had their pay reduced while low-level civil servants saw theirs raised,<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=234}}.</ref> and in March 1959, Castro declared rents for those who paid less than $100 a month halved.<ref name="Bourne 1986 186">{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=186}}.</ref> The Cuban government also began to expropriate the casinos and properties from mafia leaders and taking millions in cash. Before he died [[Meyer Lansky]] said Cuba "ruined" him.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/latino/book-reveals-extent-mafia-cuban-empire-article-1.350649|title=Book reveals extent of Mafia's Cuban empire|last=Martorell|first=Carlos Rodriguez|date=17 July 2008|work=Daily News|location=New York|access-date=19 March 2017|archive-date=20 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320052108/http://www.nydailynews.com/latino/book-reveals-extent-mafia-cuban-empire-article-1.350649|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 9 April, Castro announced that the elections, which the [[26th of July Movement]] had promised would occur after the revolution, would be postponed, so that the provisional government could focus on domestic reform. Castro announced this electoral delay with the slogan: "[[revolution first, elections later]]".<ref name=wright>{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Thomas |author-link= |date=2022 |title=Democracy in Latin America A History Since Independence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UeGgEAAAQBAJ&dq=Revolution+first,+elections+later+1959&pg=PA88 |location= |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |page=88 |isbn=9781538149355}}</ref><ref name=Martinez>{{cite book |last=Martinez-Fernandez |first=Luis |author-link= |date=2014 |title= Revolutionary Cuba A History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h37SEAAAQBAJ&dq=Revolution+first,+elections+later+1959&pg=PA52 |location= |publisher=University Press of Florida |page=52 |isbn=9780813048765}}</ref><ref name=Dominguez>{{cite book |last=Dominguez |first=Jorge |author-link= |date=2009 |title=Cuba Order and Revolution |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1oF-WQmOPgC&dq=Revolution+first,+elections+later+1959&pg=PA144 |location= |publisher=Harvard University Press |page=144 |isbn=9780674034280}}</ref>

Later in April, he visited the US on a [[wikt:charm offensive|charm offensive]] where President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] would not meet with him, but instead sent Vice President [[Richard Nixon]], whom Castro instantly disliked.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=174–177}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=236–242}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=155–157}}.</ref> After meeting Castro, Nixon described him to Eisenhower: "The one fact we can be sure of is that Castro has those indefinable qualities which made him a leader of men. Whatever we may think of him he is going to be a great factor in the development of Cuba and very possibly in Latin American affairs generally. He seems to be sincere. He is either incredibly naive about Communism or under Communist discipline-my guess is the former...His ideas as to how to run a government or an economy are less developed than those of almost any world figure I have met in fifty countries. But because he has the power to lead...we have no choice but at least try to orient him in the right direction".<ref>{{harvnb|Gaddis|1997|p=180}}</ref>

[[File:René Lévesque Fidel Castro Montreal 1959.jpg|thumb|left|[[CBC/Radio-Canada]]'s journalist and future [[Premier of Quebec]], [[René Lévesque]], interviews Castro during his trip to [[Montreal]] in late April 1959.]]
Proceeding to Canada,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/fidel-castro-visit-montreal-april-1959-1.3871200 |title=How 1 man brought Fidel Castro to Montreal in April 1959 |first=Brennan |last=Neill |date=28 November 2016 |access-date=21 February 2018 |archive-date=18 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418221944/http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/fidel-castro-visit-montreal-april-1959-1.3871200 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Toy drive brought Fidel Castro to Montreal in 1959 |url=https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/toy-drive-brought-fidel-castro-to-montreal-in-1959 |access-date=20 March 2022 |website=Montreal Gazette |language=en-CA |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417134951/https://montrealgazette.com/news/local-news/toy-drive-brought-fidel-castro-to-montreal-in-1959 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Lowrie |first=Morgan |date=27 November 2016 |title=Fidel Castro welcomed by crowds, shunned by politicians during 1959 Montreal visit |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/fidel-castro-montreal-1.3869910 |access-date=20 March 2022 |publisher=CBC News |archive-date=20 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320145029/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/fidel-castro-montreal-1.3869910 |url-status=live }}</ref> Trinidad, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, Castro attended an economic conference in [[Buenos Aires]], unsuccessfully proposing a $30&nbsp;billion US-funded "[[Marshall Plan]]" for Latin America.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=177}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=243}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=158}}.</ref> In May 1959, Castro signed into law the [[Agrarian Reform Laws of Cuba|First Agrarian Reform]], setting a cap for landholdings to {{convert|993|acre|ha}} per owner and prohibiting foreigners from obtaining Cuban land ownership. Around 200,000 peasants received title deeds as large land holdings were broken up; popular among the working class, it alienated the richer landowners, including Castro's own mother,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A36359-2005Jan25.html|title=The Controversial, Charismatic Castro|last=Robinson|first=Eugene|date=30 January 2005|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=27 January 2019|archive-date=10 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810175734/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/articles/A36359-2005Jan25.html|url-status=live}}</ref> whose farmlands were taken.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=177–178}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=280}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=159–160}}, {{cite web|url=http://u.truman.edu/cuba/aboutme.htm |title=First Agrarian Reform Law (1959) |access-date=29 August 2006 }}{{dead link|date=December 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}.</ref> Within a year, Castro and his government had effectively redistributed 15 per cent of the nation's wealth, declaring that "the revolution is the dictatorship of the exploited against the exploiters."<ref>{{Cite book|title=With Fidel: A Portrait of Castro and Cuba|url=https://archive.org/details/withfidel00fran|url-access=registration|last1=Mankiewicz|first1=Frank|last2=Jones|first2=Kirby|publisher=Ballantine Books|year=1976|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/withfidel00fran/page/83 83]|isbn=9780345249814}}</ref>

[[File:Sukarno and Fidel, 1960.jpg|thumb|Castro and Indonesian president [[Sukarno]] in Havana, 1960. Castro undertook many foreign visits during his initial years in power.]]

In the summer of 1959, Fidel began nationalizing plantation lands owned by American investors as well as confiscating the property of foreign landowners. He also seized property previously held by wealthy Cubans who had fled.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/fl-cuban-american-lost-property-20150405-story.html|title=Cuban exiles seek compensation for seized property|first=William E.|last=Gibson|website=Sun-Sentinel|date=5 April 2015 |access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412081851/https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/nationworld/fl-cuban-american-lost-property-20150405-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/01/cuban-exiles-confiscated-property-diplomatic-thaw|title=Cuban exiles hope diplomatic thaw can help them regain confiscated property|last=Luscombe|first=Joe Lamar Richard|date=1 August 2015|access-date=4 March 2019|work=The Guardian|archive-date=3 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203143546/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/aug/01/cuban-exiles-confiscated-property-diplomatic-thaw|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.tampabay.com/news/nation/run-from-cuba-americans-cling-to-claims-for-seized-property/2223110|title=Run from Cuba, Americans cling to claims for seized property|date=29 March 2015|newspaper=[[Tampa Bay Times]]|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412051419/https://www.tampabay.com/news/nation/run-from-cuba-americans-cling-to-claims-for-seized-property/2223110|url-status=live}}</ref> He nationalized sugar production and oil refinement, over the objection of foreign investors who owned stakes in these commodities.<ref>{{cite news| title=Cuba, you owe us $7&nbsp;billion| url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2014/04/18/cuba-you-owe-billion/jHAufRfQJ9Bx24TuzQyBNO/story.html| newspaper=The Boston Globe| date=18 April 2014| access-date=5 April 2016| archive-date=12 April 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412082117/https://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2014/04/18/cuba-you-owe-billion/jHAufRfQJ9Bx24TuzQyBNO/story.html| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| title=1960 Dollars in 2016 Dollars| url=http://www.in2013dollars.com/1960-dollars-in-2016?amount=1700000| publisher=Inflation Calculator| access-date=5 April 2016| archive-date=26 October 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181026182652/http://www.in2013dollars.com/1960-dollars-in-2016?amount=1700000| url-status=live}}</ref>

Although then refusing to categorize his regime as socialist and repeatedly denying being a communist, Castro appointed Marxists to senior government and military positions. President Urrutia increasingly expressed concern with the rising influence of Marxism. Angered, Castro in turn announced his resignation as prime minister on 18 July—blaming Urrutia for complicating government with his "fevered anti-Communism". Over 500,000 Castro-supporters surrounded the Presidential Palace demanding Urrutia's resignation, which he submitted. On 23 July, Castro resumed his premiership and appointed Marxist [[Osvaldo Dorticós]] as president.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=181–183}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=248–252}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=162}}.</ref>

On October 19, 1959, army commander [[Huber Matos]] wrote a resignation letter to Fidel Castro, complaining of Communist influence in government.<ref name=pbs>{{cite web|title=Huber Matos, a Moderate in the Cuban Revolution|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/castro/peopleevents/e_moderates.html |website=American Experience|publisher=PBS|access-date=4 February 2016}}</ref> Matos lamented in his resignation that communists were gaining positions of power that he felt were undeserved for having not participated in the [[Cuban Revolution]].<ref name=Eagle>{{cite book |date=2013 |title=Beyond the Eagle's Shadow New Histories of Latin America's Cold War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rbPQAQAAQBAJ&dq=huber+matos+affair&pg=PA115 |location= |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |pages=115–116 |isbn=978-0826353696}}</ref> Matos planned for his officers to also resign en masse in support.<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |title= The Cuban Counterrevolution|year= 2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kr_qEEfEf24C&dq=matos+affair&pg=PA56 |location= |publisher= Ohio University Press|page= |isbn=9780896802148}}</ref> Two days later, Castro sent fellow revolutionary [[Camilo Cienfuegos]] to arrest Matos.<ref name="Matos">Cómo llegó la noche: Matos, Huber: {{ISBN|84-8310-791-0}} Tusquets-2004</ref><ref name=revworld>{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Jonathan |date=2017 |title=Cuba's Revolutionary World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js-5DgAAQBAJ&dq=huber+matos+affair&pg=PT39 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674978324}}</ref> The same day Matos was arrested, [[Cuban exile]] [[Pedro Luis Díaz Lanz]], a former air force chief of staff under Castro and friend of Huber Matos, flew from Florida and dropped leaflets into Havana that called for the removal of all Communists from the government. In response, Castro held a rally where he called for the reintroduction of revolutionary tribunals to try Matos and Diaz for treason.<ref name=bonsal>{{cite book | first = Philip | last = Bonsal | year= 1971 | publisher = University of Pittsburgh Press | title = Cuba, Castro, and the United States | pages= 104–107}}</ref><ref name=revworld /> Shortly after Hubert Matos' detention various other disillusioned economists would send in their resignations. [[Felipe Pazos]] would resign as head of the National Bank and be replaced within a month by [[Che Guevara]]. Cabinet members [[Manuel Ray]] and Faustino Perez also resigned.<ref name=Castro>{{cite book |last=Leonard |first=Thomas |date=2004 |title=Fidel Castro A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=63sFubdrEVcC&dq=matos+affair&pg=PA52 |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=49–51 |isbn=0313323011}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Gonzalez |first=Servando |date=2002 |title=The Nuclear Deception Nikita Khrushchev and the Cuban Missile Crisis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OTXwLhjRleMC&dq=anibal+escalante+exile&pg=PA103 |publisher=Spooks Books |page=52 |isbn=9780971139152}}</ref>

Castro's government continued to emphasise social projects to improve Cuba's [[standard of living]], often to the detriment of economic development.<ref name="Bourne 1986. p. 275-76">{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=275–276}}.</ref> Major emphasis was placed on education, and during the first 30 months of Castro's government, more classrooms were opened than in the previous 30 years. The Cuban primary education system offered a work-study program, with half of the time spent in the classroom, and the other half in a productive activity.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=275–276}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=324}}.</ref> Health care was nationalized and expanded, with rural health centers and urban polyclinics opening up across the island to offer free medical aid. Universal vaccination against childhood diseases was implemented, and infant mortality rates were reduced dramatically.<ref name="Bourne 1986. p. 275-76"/> A third part of this social program was the improvement of infrastructure. Within the first six months of Castro's government, {{convert|600|mi|km|order=flip|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} of roads were built across the island, while $300&nbsp;million was spent on water and sanitation projects.<ref name="Bourne 1986. p. 275-76"/> Over 800 houses were constructed every month in the early years of the administration in an effort to cut homelessness, while nurseries and day-care centers were opened for children and other centers opened for the disabled and elderly.<ref name="Bourne 1986. p. 275-76"/>

===Diplomatic and political shifts: 1960===
{{Further|Coletilla|La Coubre explosion}}
[[File:CheLaCoubreMarch.jpg|thumb|left|Castro (first from the left), [[Che Guevara]] (center), [[William Alexander Morgan]] (second from the right), and other leading revolutionaries marching through the streets in protest over the [[La Coubre explosion|''La Coubre'' explosion]], 5 March 1960]]
Castro used radio and television to develop a "dialogue with the people", posing questions and making provocative statements.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=179}}.</ref> His regime remained popular with workers, peasants, and students, who constituted the majority of the country's population,<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=280}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=168}}.</ref> while opposition came primarily from the middle class; thousands of doctors, engineers and other professionals emigrated to Florida in the US, causing an economic [[brain drain]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=195–197}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=167}}.</ref> Productivity decreased and the country's financial reserves were drained within two years.<ref name="Bourne 1986 186"/> After conservative press expressed hostility towards the government, the pro-Castro printers' trade union disrupted editorial staff, and in January 1960 the government ordered them to publish a "''coletilla''" (clarification) written by the printers' union at the end of articles critical of the government.<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=197}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=165–166}}.</ref> Castro's government arrested hundreds of [[counter-revolution]]aries,<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=181, 197}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=168}}.</ref> many of whom were subjected to solitary confinement, rough treatment, and threatening behaviour.<ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=176–177}}.</ref> Militant anti-Castro groups, funded by exiles, the CIA, and the Dominican government, undertook armed attacks and set up guerrilla bases in Cuba's mountains, leading to the six-year [[Escambray Rebellion]].<ref>{{harvnb|Franqui|1984|pp=111–115}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=167}}; {{harvnb|Ros|2006|pp=159–201}}.</ref>

At the time, 1960, the [[Cold War]] raged between two superpowers: the United States, a capitalist [[liberal democracy]], and the Soviet Union (USSR), a Marxist–Leninist socialist state ruled by the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party]]. Expressing contempt for the US, Castro shared the ideological views of the USSR, establishing relations with several Marxist–Leninist states.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=202}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=296}}.</ref> Meeting with Soviet [[First Deputy Premier of the Soviet Union|First Deputy Premier]] [[Anastas Mikoyan]], Castro agreed to provide the USSR with sugar, fruit, fibres, and hides in return for crude oil, fertilizers, industrial goods, and a $100&nbsp;million loan.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=189–190, 198–199}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=292–296}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=170–172}}.</ref> Cuba's government ordered the country's refineries—then controlled by the US corporations [[Shell Oil Company|Shell]] and [[Esso]]—to process Soviet oil, but under US pressure they refused. Castro responded by expropriating and [[nationalizing]] the refineries. Retaliating, the US cancelled its import of Cuban sugar, provoking Castro to nationalize most US-owned assets on the island, including banks and sugar mills.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=205–206}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=316–319}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=173}}.</ref>

[[File:La Coubre explosion.jpg|thumb|''La Coubre'' explosion, 4 March 1960]]
Relations between Cuba and the US were further strained following the explosion of a French vessel, the ''[[La Coubre]]'', in Havana harbour in March 1960. The ship carried weapons purchased from Belgium, and the cause of the explosion was never determined, but Castro publicly insinuated that the US government was guilty of sabotage. He ended this speech with "''¡Patria o Muerte!''" ("Fatherland or Death"), a proclamation that he made much use of in ensuing years.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=201–202}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=302}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=172}}.</ref> Inspired by their earlier success with the [[1954 Guatemalan coup d'état]], in March 1960, US President Eisenhower authorized the [[CIA]] to overthrow Castro's government. He provided them with a budget of $13&nbsp;million and permitted them to ally with the [[American Mafia|Mafia]], who were aggrieved that Castro's government closed down their brothel and casino businesses in Cuba.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=202, 211–213}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=272–273}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=172–173}}.</ref>

During a May Day speech in 1960, Fidel Castro announced that all future elections would be cancelled.<ref name=Dominguez /><ref name=Martinez /><ref name=wright /> Castro proclaimed that his administration was a [[direct democracy]], in which Cubans could assemble at demonstrations to express their will, thus there was no need for elections, claiming that [[representative democracy|representative democratic]] systems served the interests of socio-economic elites.<ref>{{harvnb|Geyer|1991|p=277}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=313}}.</ref> US Secretary of State [[Christian Herter]] announced that Cuba was adopting the Soviet model of rule, with a one-party state, government control of trade unions, suppression of civil liberties, and the absence of freedom of speech and press.<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=330}}.</ref>

[[File:Fidel Castro - UN General Assembly 1960.jpg|thumb|Castro at the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in 1960]]
In September 1960, Castro flew to New York City for the [[General Assembly of the United Nations]]. Staying at the [[Hotel Theresa]] in [[Harlem]], he met with journalists and anti-establishment figures like [[Malcolm X]]. Castro had decided to stay in Harlem as a way of expressing solidarity with the poor African-American population living there, thus leading to an assortment of world leaders such as Nasser of Egypt and Nehru of India having to drive out to Harlem to see him.<ref name="Gaddis 1997 182">{{harvnb|Gaddis|1997|p=182}}.</ref> He also met Soviet premier [[Nikita Khrushchev]], with the two publicly condemning the poverty and [[Racism in the United States|racism faced by Americans]] in areas like Harlem.<ref name="Gaddis 1997 182"/> Relations between Castro and Khrushchev were warm; they led the applause to one another's speeches at the General Assembly.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=206–209}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=333–338}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=174–176}}.</ref> The opening session of the United Nations General Assembly in September 1960 was a highly rancorous one with Khrushchev famously [[Shoe-banging incident|banging his shoe against his desk]] to interrupt a speech by Filipino delegate [[Lorenzo Sumulong]], which set the general tone for the debates and speeches.<ref name="Gaddis 1997 182"/> Castro delivered the longest speech ever held before the United Nations General Assembly, speaking for four and a half hours in a speech mostly given over to denouncing American policies towards Latin America.<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the longest speech given at the United Nations? |url=http://ask.un.org/faq/37127 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=30 November 2018 |archive-date=29 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129043125/https://ask.un.org/faq/37127 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Gaddis|1997|p=183}}.</ref> Subsequently, visited by Polish first secretary [[Władysław Gomułka]], Bulgarian first secretary [[Todor Zhivkov]], Egyptian president [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]], and Indian premier [[Jawaharlal Nehru]],<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=209–210}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=337}}.</ref> Castro also received an evening's reception from the [[Fair Play for Cuba Committee]].<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=339}}.</ref>

Back in Cuba, Castro feared a US-backed coup; in 1959 his regime spent $120&nbsp;million on Soviet, French, and Belgian weaponry and by early 1960 had doubled the size of Cuba's armed forces.<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=300}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=176}}.</ref> Fearing counter-revolutionary elements in the army, the government created a People's Militia to arm citizens favourable to the revolution, training at least 50,000 civilians in combat techniques.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=125}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=300}}.</ref> In September 1960, they created the [[Committees for the Defense of the Revolution]] (CDR), a nationwide civilian organization which implemented neighbourhood spying to detect counter-revolutionary activities as well as organizing health and education campaigns, becoming a conduit for public complaints. By 1970, a third of the population would be involved in the CDR, and this would eventually rise to 80%.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=233}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=345, 649}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=176}}.</ref>
[[File:Castro and Nasser.jpg|thumb|Castro giving press statement next to Egypt's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] before their meeting on the sidelines of United Nations General Assembly in 1960]]
On 13 October 1960, the US prohibited the majority of exports to Cuba, initiating [[United States embargo against Cuba|an economic embargo]]. In retaliation, the National Institute for Agrarian Reform [[Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria|INRA]] took control of 383 private-run businesses on 14 October, and on 25 October a further 166 US companies operating in Cuba had their premises seized and nationalized.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=214}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=349}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=177}}.</ref> On 16 December, the US ended its import quota of Cuban sugar, the country's primary export.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=215}}.</ref>

===Bay of Pigs Invasion and "Socialist Cuba": 1961–1962===
{{Main|Bay of Pigs Invasion}}
{{See also|Assassination attempts on Fidel Castro|P.M. affair|Four Year Plan (Cuba)|Escalante affair}}
{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=There was ... no doubt about who the victors were. Cuba's stature in the world soared to new heights, and Fidel's role as the adored and revered leader among ordinary Cuban people received a renewed boost. His popularity was greater than ever. In his own mind he had done what generations of Cubans had only fantasized about: he had taken on the United States and won.|source=– [[Peter Bourne]], Castro biographer, 1986{{sfn|Bourne|1986|p=226}}}}

In January 1961, Castro ordered [[Embassy of the United States, Havana|Havana's US Embassy]] to reduce its 300-member staff, suspecting that many of them were spies. The US responded by ending diplomatic relations, and it increased CIA funding for exiled dissidents; these militants began attacking ships that traded with Cuba, and bombed factories, shops, and sugar mills.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=215–216}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=353–354, 365–366}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=178}}.</ref> Despite internal tensions, and diplomatic tensions, Castro garnered support in New York City. On 18 February 1961, 400 people—mainly Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and college students—picketed in the rain outside of the United Nations rallying for Castro's anti-colonial values and his effort to reduce the United States' power over Cuba. The protesters held up signs that read, "Mr. Kennedy, Cuba is Not For Sale.", "[[Vive, viva, and vivat|Viva]] Fidel Castro!" and "Down With Yankee Imperialism!". Around 200 policemen were on the scene, but the protesters continued to chant slogans and throw pennies in support of Fidel Castro's socialist movement. Some Americans disagreed with President [[John F. Kennedy]]'s decision to ban trade with Cuba, and outwardly supported his nationalist revolutionary tactics.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Benjamin |first1=Philip |title=400 picket U.N. in salute to castro and lumumba. New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1961/02/19/archives/400-picket-un-in-salute-to-castro-and-lumumba-pickets-march-at-un-3.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=19 February 1961 |access-date=9 November 2018 |archive-date=9 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109234633/https://www.nytimes.com/1961/02/19/archives/400-picket-un-in-salute-to-castro-and-lumumba-pickets-march-at-un-3.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Both President Eisenhower and his successor President Kennedy supported a CIA plan to aid a dissident militia: the [[Cuban Democratic Revolutionary Front|Democratic Revolutionary Front]], to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro; the plan resulted in the [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]] in April 1961. On 15 April, CIA-supplied [[Douglas A-26 Invader|B-26]]s bombed three Cuban military airfields; the US announced that the perpetrators were defecting Cuban air force pilots, but Castro exposed these claims as [[false flag]] misinformation.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=217–220}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=363–367}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=178–179}}.</ref> Fearing invasion, he ordered the arrest of between 20,000 and 100,000 suspected counter-revolutionaries,<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=221–222}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=371}}.</ref> publicly proclaiming, "What the imperialists cannot forgive us, is that we have made a Socialist revolution under their noses", his first announcement that the government was socialist.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=221–222}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=369}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=180, 186}}.</ref>

[[File:CheyFidel.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Che Guevara]] (left) and Castro, photographed by [[Alberto Korda]] in 1961]]
The CIA and the Democratic Revolutionary Front had based a 1,400-strong army, [[Brigade 2506]], in [[Nicaragua]]. On the night of 16 to 17 April, Brigade 2506 landed along Cuba's [[Bay of Pigs]] and engaged in a firefight with a local revolutionary militia. Castro ordered Captain José Ramón Fernández to launch the counter-offensive, before taking personal control of it. After bombing the invaders' ships and bringing in reinforcements, Castro forced the Brigade to surrender on 20 April.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=222–225}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=370–374}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=180–184}}.</ref> He ordered the 1189 captured rebels to be interrogated by a panel of journalists on live television, personally taking over the questioning on 25 April. Fourteen were put on trial for crimes allegedly committed before the revolution, while the others were returned to the US in exchange for medicine and food valued at {{US$|25&nbsp;million}}.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=226–227}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=375–378}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=180–184}}.</ref> Castro's victory reverberated around the world, especially in Latin America, but it also increased internal opposition primarily among the middle-class Cubans who had been detained in the run-up to the invasion. Although most were freed within a few days, many fled to the US, establishing themselves in Florida.<ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=185–186}}.</ref>

After the [[P.M. affair|banning of the film ''P.M.'']], film critics hotly debated censorship in Cuba, which then caused the intervention of Castro, who met with the contesting writers and delivered his famed "Words to the Intellectuals" speech;<ref>{{cite book |last= |first= |author-link= |date=2001 |title=Censorship A World Encyclopedia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gDqsCQAAQBAJ&dq=P.M.+affair+cuba&pg=PA401 |location= |publisher=Taylor and Francis |pages=400–401 |isbn=9781136798641}}</ref> which he delivered in June 1961. In the speech, Castro commented on Cuba's censorship policy, stating:<ref name=speech>{{cite web |url=http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1961/19610630.html |title=CASTRO'S SPEECH TO INTELLECTUALS ON 30 JUNE 61 |last=Castro |first=Fidel |date=1961 |website=lanic.utexas.edu |publisher= |access-date= |quote=}}</ref>
{{Blockquote
|text=This means that within the Revolution, everything goes; against the Revolution, nothing. Nothing against the Revolution, because the Revolution has its rights also, and the first right of the Revolution is the right to exist, and no one can stand against the right of the Revolution to be and to exist, No one can rightfully claim a right against the Revolution. Since it takes in the interests of the people and Signifies the interests of the entire nation.<ref name=speech/>}}

In an effort to consolidate "Socialist Cuba", Castro united the MR-26-7, PSP and Revolutionary Directorate into a governing party based on the Leninist principle of [[democratic centralism]], what resulted was the [[Communist Party of Cuba|Integrated Revolutionary Organizations]] (''Organizaciones Revolucionarias Integradas'' – ORI), eventually renamed the United Party of the Cuban Socialist Revolution (PURSC) in 1962.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=230}}; {{harvnb|Geyer|1991|p=276}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=387, 396}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=188}}.</ref> The ORI began shaping Cuba using the Soviet model, persecuting political opponents and perceived [[Deviance (sociology)|social deviants]] such as prostitutes and homosexuals; Castro considered same-sex sexual activity a bourgeois trait.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=233}}.</ref>  
Although the USSR was hesitant regarding Castro's embrace of socialism,<ref>{{harvnb|Geyer|1991|pp=274–275}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=385–386}}.</ref> relations with the Soviets deepened. Castro sent Fidelito for a Moscow schooling,<ref name="Bourne 1986 231">{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=231}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=188}}.</ref> Soviet technicians arrived on the island,<ref name="Bourne 1986 231"/> and Castro was awarded the [[Lenin Peace Prize]].<ref>{{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=405}}.</ref>

In order to plan the Cuban economy, the commission JUCEPLAN was tasked with creating a four year plan. Regino Boti, the head of JUCEPLAN, announced in August 1961, that the country would soon have a 10% rate of economic growth, and the highest living standard in Latin America in 10 years.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gott |first=Richard |date=2005 |title=Cuba A New History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aVq0qOnLFusC&dq=cuba+four+year+plan&pg=PA187 |location= |publisher=Yale University Press |page=187 |isbn= 978-0-300-11114-9|access-date=}}</ref> The plan drafted by JUCEPLAN in 1961, was a [[Four Year Plan (Cuba)|four year plan]] devised to be implemented in 1962 through 1965. It stressed agricultural diversification and rapid industrialization via Soviet assistance.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Todd |first1=Allan |last2=Waller |first2=Sally |date=2015 |title=History for the IB Diploma Paper 2
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y_pfCgAAQBAJ&dq=guevara+juceplan+four+year+plan&pg=PA228 |location= |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=227–228 |isbn=9781107558892 |access-date=}}</ref> In September 1961, Castro publicly complained that the industrialization plan had stalled because of lazy uncooperative workers.<ref name=Bunck>{{cite book |last=Bunck |first=Julie |date=2010 |title=Fidel Castro and the Quest for a Revolutionary Culture in Cuba
 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rOf7CtLPDe4C&dq=guevara+%22socialist+emulation%22+1961&pg=PA130 |location= |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |pages=131–135 |isbn=9780271040271 |access-date=}}</ref>

In December 1961, Castro admitted that he had been a Marxist–Leninist for years, and in his Second Declaration of Havana he called on Latin America to rise up in revolution.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=230–234|2a1=Geyer|2y=1991|2p=274|3a1=Quirk|3y=1993|3pp=395, 400–401|4a1=Coltman|4y=2003|4p=190}} In response, the US successfully pushed the Organization of American States to expel Cuba; the Soviets privately reprimanded Castro for recklessness, although he received praise from China.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=232–234}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=397–401}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=190}}.</ref> Despite their ideological affinity with China, in the [[Sino-Soviet split]], Cuba allied with the wealthier Soviets, who offered economic and military aid.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=232}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=397}}.</ref>

By 1962, Cuba's economy was in steep decline, a result of poor economic management and low productivity coupled with the US trade embargo. Food shortages led to rationing, resulting in protests in [[Cárdenas, Cuba|Cárdenas]].<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=233}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=203–204, 410–412}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=189}}.</ref> Security reports indicated that many Cubans associated austerity with the "Old Communists" of the PSP, while Castro considered a number of them—namely [[Anibal Escalante|Aníbal Escalante]] and [[Blas Roca]]—unduly loyal to Moscow. In March 1962 Castro removed the most prominent "Old Communists" from office, labelling them "sectarian".<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=234–236}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=403–406}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=192}}.</ref> On a personal level, Castro was increasingly lonely, and his relations with Guevara became strained as the latter became increasingly anti-Soviet and pro-Chinese.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=258–259}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=191–192}}.</ref>

===Cuban Missile Crisis and furthering socialism: 1962–1968===
{{Main|Cuban Missile Crisis|Great Debate (Cuba)|Revolutionary Offensive}}
[[File:U2 Image of Cuban Missile Crisis.jpg|thumb|U-2 reconnaissance photograph of Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba]]
Militarily weaker than [[NATO]], Khrushchev wanted to install Soviet [[R-12 (missile)|R-12]] [[MRBM]] nuclear missiles on Cuba to even the power balance.<ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=192–194}}.</ref> Although conflicted, Castro agreed, believing it would guarantee Cuba's safety and enhance the cause of socialism.<ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=194}}.</ref> Undertaken in secrecy, only the Castro brothers, Guevara, Dorticós and security chief [[Ramiro Valdés]] knew the full plan.<ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=195}}.</ref> Upon discovering it through aerial reconnaissance, in October the US implemented an island-wide [[quarantine]] to search vessels headed to Cuba, sparking the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]]. The US saw the missiles as offensive; Castro insisted they were for defence only.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=238–239}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|p=425}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=196–197}}.</ref> Castro urged that Khrushchev should launch a nuclear strike on the US if Cuba were invaded, but Khrushchev was desperate to avoid [[nuclear war]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mulrine |first1=Anna |title=Cuban Missile Crisis: the 3 most surprising things you didn't know |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/DC-Decoder/2012/1016/Cuban-Missile-Crisis-the-3-most-surprising-things-you-didn-t-know/Fidel-Castro-was-pushing-for-nuclear-annihilation-of-the-US |access-date=23 April 2020 |work=The Christian Science Monitor |date=16 October 2012 |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731044340/https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Politics/DC-Decoder/2012/1016/Cuban-Missile-Crisis-the-3-most-surprising-things-you-didn-t-know/Fidel-Castro-was-pushing-for-nuclear-annihilation-of-the-US |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|p=197}}.</ref> Castro was left out of the negotiations, in which Khrushchev agreed to remove the missiles in exchange for a US commitment not to invade Cuba and an understanding that the US would remove their [[PGM-19 Jupiter#Operational deployment|MRBMs from Turkey and Italy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=198–199}}.</ref> Feeling betrayed by Khrushchev, Castro was furious and soon fell ill.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|p=239}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=443–434, 449}}; {{harvnb|Coltman|2003|pp=199–200, 203}}.</ref> Proposing a five-point plan, Castro demanded that the US end its embargo, withdraw from [[Guantanamo Bay Naval Base]], cease supporting dissidents, and stop violating Cuban air space and territorial waters. He presented these demands to [[U Thant]], visiting [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]], but the US ignored them. In turn Castro refused to allow the UN's inspection team into Cuba.<ref>{{harvnb|Bourne|1986|pp=241–242}}; {{harvnb|Quirk|1993|pp=444–445}}.</ref>

In May 1963, Castro visited the USSR at Khrushchev's personal invitation, touring 14 cities, addressing a [[Red Square]] rally, and being awarded both the [[Order of Lenin]] and an honorary doctorate from [[Moscow State University]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=245–248|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=458–470|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3pp=204–205}} Castro returned to Cuba with new ideas; inspired by Soviet newspaper ''[[Pravda]]'', he amalgamated ''Hoy'' and ''Revolución'' into a new daily, ''[[Granma (newspaper)|Granma]]'',{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=249|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2p=538}} and oversaw large investment into Cuban sport that resulted in an increased international sporting reputation.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=249–250|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2p=702}} Seeking to further consolidate control, in 1963 the government cracked down on Protestant sects in Cuba, with Castro labelling them counter-revolutionary "instruments of imperialism"; many preachers were found guilty of illegal US links and imprisoned.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=435–434}} Measures were implemented to force perceived idle and delinquent youths to work, primarily through the introduction of mandatory military service.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=454–454, 479–480}} In September, the government temporarily permitted emigration for anyone other than males aged between 15 and 26, thereby ridding the government of thousands of critics, most of whom were from upper and middle-class backgrounds.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=530–534|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=213}} In 1963, Castro's mother died. This was the last time his private life was reported in Cuba's press.{{sfn|Bourne|1986|pp=250–251}} In January 1964, Castro returned to Moscow, officially to sign a new five-year sugar trade agreement, but also to discuss the ramifications of the [[assassination of John F. Kennedy]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=263|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=488–489}} Castro was deeply concerned by the assassination, believing that a far-right conspiracy was behind it but that the Cubans would be blamed.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=484–486}} In October 1965, the Integrated Revolutionary Organizations was officially renamed the "Cuban Communist Party" and published the membership of its Central Committee.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1p=534|2a1=Coltman|2a2=2003|2p=213}}

Beginning in 1965,<ref name="Guerra">Guerra, Lillian. "Gender policing, homosexuality and the new patriarchy of the Cuban Revolution." Social History. 35.3 (2010): 268. Web. <{{cite web |url=http://plaza.ufl.edu/lillian.guerra/pdfs/lillian-guerra-social-history.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-05-17 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101051842/http://plaza.ufl.edu/lillian.guerra/pdfs/lillian-guerra-social-history.pdf |archive-date=2013-11-01 }}>.</ref> gay men were forced into the [[Military Units to Aid Production]] (''Unidades Militares de Ayuda a la Producción'' – UMAP). However, after many revolutionary intellectuals decried this move, the UMAP camps were closed in 1967, although gay men continued to be imprisoned.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=525–526|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2pp=188–189}}

{{Quote box|width=25em|align=right|quote=The greatest threat presented by Castro's Cuba is as an example to other Latin American states which are beset by poverty, corruption, feudalism, and plutocratic exploitation ... his influence in Latin America might be overwhelming and irresistible if, with Soviet help, he could establish in Cuba a Communist utopia.|source=– [[Walter Lippmann]], ''[[Newsweek]]'', 27 April 1964<ref>"Cuba Once More", by [[Walter Lippmann]], ''[[Newsweek]]'', 27 April 1964, p. 23.</ref>}}

Despite Soviet misgivings, Castro continued to call for global revolution, funding militant leftists and those engaged in [[national liberation]] struggles. Cuba's foreign policy was strongly anti-imperialist, believing that every nation should control its own natural resources.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|p=744}} He supported Che Guevara's "Andean project", an unsuccessful plan to set up a guerrilla movement in the highlands of [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]] and [[Argentina]]. He allowed revolutionary groups from around the world, from the [[Viet Cong]] to the [[Black Panther Party|Black Panthers]], to train in Cuba.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=255|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=211}}
He considered Western-dominated Africa to be ripe for revolution and sent troops and medics to aid [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]'s socialist regime in Algeria during the [[Sand War]]. He also allied with [[Alphonse Massamba-Débat]]'s socialist government in [[Congo-Brazzaville]]. In 1965, Castro authorized Che Guevara to travel to [[Republic of the Congo (Léopoldville)|Congo-Kinshasa]] to train [[Simba rebellion|revolutionaries against the Western-backed government]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=255–256, 260|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2p=744|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3pp=211–212}} Castro was personally devastated when Guevara was killed by CIA-backed troops in Bolivia in October 1967 and publicly attributed it to Guevara's disregard for his own safety.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=267–268|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=582–585|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3p=216}}

In 1966, Castro staged a [[Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia, Africa and Latin America|Tri-Continental Conference of Africa, Asia and Latin America]] in Havana, further establishing himself as a significant player on the world stage.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=265|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=214}} From this conference, Castro created the Latin American Solidarity Organization (OLAS), which adopted the slogan of "The duty of a revolution is to make revolution", signifying Havana's leadership of Latin America's revolutionary movement.{{sfn|Bourne|1986|p=267}}
[[File:Fidel-Gagarin-hug.jpg|thumb|Castro and Russian cosmonaut [[Yuri Gagarin]], the first human in space]]
Castro's increasing role on the world stage strained his relationship with the USSR, now under the leadership of [[Leonid Brezhnev]]. Asserting Cuba's independence, Castro refused to sign the [[Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons]], declaring it a Soviet-US attempt to dominate the [[Third World]].{{sfn|Bourne|1986|p=269}} Diverting from Soviet Marxist doctrine, he suggested that Cuban society could evolve straight to [[pure communism]] rather than gradually progress through various stages of socialism.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=559–560}} In turn, the Soviet-loyalist Aníbal Escalante began organizing a government network of opposition to Castro, though in January 1968, he and his supporters were arrested for allegedly passing state secrets to Moscow.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=269–270|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=588–590}} Recognising Cuba's economic dependence on the Soviets, Castro relented to Brezhnev's pressure to be obedient, and in August 1968 he denounced the leaders of the [[Prague Spring]] and praised the [[Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=270–271|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=597–600|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3pp=216–217}}<ref>{{cite web |last=Castro |first=Fidel |date=August 1968 |url=http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1968/19680824.html |title=Castro comments on Czechoslovakia crisis |publisher=FBIS |access-date=25 September 2011 |archive-date=2 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402043602/http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1968/19680824.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Influenced by China's [[Great Leap Forward]], in 1968 Castro proclaimed a [[Revolutionary Offensive|Great Revolutionary Offensive]], closing all remaining privately owned shops and businesses and denouncing their owners as capitalist counterrevolutionaries.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=591–594|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=227}} The severe lack of consumer goods for purchase led productivity to decline, as large sectors of the population felt little incentive to work hard.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|p=647}} This was exacerbated by the perception that a revolutionary elite had emerged, consisting of those connected to the administration; they had access to better housing, private transportation, servants, and the ability to purchase luxury goods abroad.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=644–645}}

===Grey years and Third World politics: 1969–1974===
{{Main|Grey years|Cuban intervention in Angola}}
[[File:BENZAZA BOUMEDIENE CASTRO.jpg|left|thumb|Late President of Algeria [[Houari Boumédiène|Houari Boumediene]], Fidel Castro, and Benzaza Hadj Benabdallah – May 1972]]
Castro publicly celebrated his administration's 10th anniversary in January 1969; in his celebratory speech he warned of sugar rations, reflecting the nation's economic problems.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=618–621|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=227}} The 1969 crop was heavily damaged by a hurricane, and to meet its export quota, the government drafted in the army, implemented a seven-day working week, and postponed public holidays to lengthen the harvest.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=273|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=634–640|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3p=229}} When that year's production quota was not met, Castro offered to resign during a public speech, but assembled crowds insisted he remain.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=274|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2p=644|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3p=230}} Despite the economic issues, many of Castro's social reforms were popular, with the population largely supportive of the "Achievements of the Revolution" in education, medical care, housing, and road construction, as well as the policies of "direct democratic" public consultation.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=275–276|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2p=606|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3p=230}} Seeking Soviet help, from 1970 to 1972 Soviet economists re-organized Cuba's economy, founding the Cuban-Soviet Commission of Economic, Scientific and Technical Collaboration, while Soviet premier [[Alexei Kosygin]] visited in October 1971.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=276–277|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=682–684}} In July 1972, Cuba joined the [[Comecon|Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] (Comecon), an economic organization of socialist states, although this further limited Cuba's economy to agricultural production.{{sfn|Bourne|1986|p=277}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-L0614-040, Berlin, Fidel Castro an der Grenze.jpg|thumb|Castro and members of the East German [[Politburo]] in Berlin, June 1972]]
In May 1970, the crews of two Cuban fishing boats were kidnapped by Florida-based dissident group [[Alpha 66]], who demanded that Cuba release imprisoned militants. Under US pressure, the hostages were released, and Castro welcomed them back as heroes.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=640–641|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=230}} In April 1971, Castro was internationally condemned for ordering the arrest of dissident poet [[Heberto Padilla]] who had been arrested 20 March; Padilla was freed, but the government established the National Cultural Council to ensure that intellectuals and artists supported the administration.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=609–615, 662–676|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2pp=232–233}}

In November 1971, [[State visit by Fidel Castro to Chile|Castro visited Chile]], where Marxist President [[Salvador Allende]] had been elected as the head of [[Popular Unity (Chile)|a left-wing coalition]]. Castro supported Allende's socialist reforms but warned him of right-wing elements in Chile's military. In 1973, the military [[1973 Chilean coup d'état|led a coup d'état]] and established a military junta led by [[Augusto Pinochet]].{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=278–280|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=685–701, 703|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3pp=233–236, 240}} Castro proceeded to Guinea to meet socialist President [[Sékou Touré]], praising him as Africa's greatest leader, and there received the [[Order of Fidelity to the People]].{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=706–707|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2pp=237–238}} He then went on a seven-week tour visiting leftist allies: Algeria, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, where he was given further awards. On each trip, he was eager to visit factory and farm workers, publicly praising their governments; privately, he urged the regimes to aid revolutionary movements elsewhere, particularly those fighting the [[Vietnam War]].{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=707–715|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=238}}

In September 1973, he returned to [[Algiers]] to attend the Fourth Summit of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM). Various NAM members were critical of Castro's attendance, claiming that Cuba was aligned to the [[Warsaw Pact]] and therefore should not be at the conference.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=283–284|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=718–719|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3p=239}} At the conference he publicly broke off relations with Israel, citing its government's close relationship with the US and its treatment of Palestinians during the [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Israel–Palestine conflict]]. This earned Castro respect throughout the Arab world, in particular from the Libyan leader [[Muammar Gaddafi]], who became a friend and ally.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1p=721|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2pp=239–240}} As the [[Yom Kippur War]] broke out in October 1973 between Israel and an Arab coalition led by Egypt and Syria, Cuba sent 4,000 troops to aid Syria.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=284|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=745–746}} Leaving Algiers, Castro visited Iraq and [[North Vietnam]].{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=721–723}}

Cuba's economy grew in 1974 as a result of high international sugar prices and new credits with Argentina, Canada, and parts of Western Europe.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=283–284|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=724–725|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3p=240}} A number of Latin American states called for Cuba's re-admittance into the Organization of American States (OAS), with the US finally conceding in 1975 on [[Henry Kissinger]]'s advice.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=282|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2p=737}} Cuba's government underwent a restructuring along Soviet lines, claiming that this would further democratization and decentralize power away from Castro. Officially announcing Cuba's identity as a [[socialist state]], the first National Congress of the Cuban Communist Party was held, and [[Constitution of Cuba#1976 Constitution|a new constitution drafted]] that abolished the position of president and prime minister. Castro remained the dominant figure in governance, taking the presidency of the newly created [[Council of State (Cuba)|Council of State]] and [[Council of Ministers (Cuba)|Council of Ministers]], making him both [[head of state]] and head of government.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1p=283|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=726–729|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3pp=240–241}}

Castro considered Africa to be "the weakest link in the imperialist chain", and at the request of [[Agostinho Neto]] he ordered 230 military advisers into [[People's Republic of Angola|Angola]] in November 1975 to aid Neto's Marxist [[MPLA]] in the [[Angolan Civil War]]. When the US and South Africa stepped up their support of the opposition [[National Liberation Front of Angola|FLNA]] and [[UNITA]], Castro ordered a further 18,000 troops to Angola, which played a major role in forcing a South African and UNITA retreat.{{sfnm|1a1=Bourne|1y=1986|1pp=281, 284–287|2a1=Quirk|2y=1993|2pp=747–750|3a1=Coltman|3y=2003|3pp=242–243}} The decision to intervene in Angola has been a controversial one, all the more so as Castro's critics have charged that it was not his decision at all, contending that the Soviets ordered him to do so.{{sfn|George|2004|pp=77–79}} Castro always maintained that he took the decision to launch Operation Carlota himself in response to an appeal from Neto and that the Soviets were in fact opposed to Cuban intervention in Angola, which took place over their opposition.{{sfn|George|2004|p=79}}

Traveling to Angola, Castro celebrated with Neto, Sékou Touré and Guinea-Bissaun president [[Luís Cabral]], where they agreed to support Mozambique's [[FRELIMO|Marxist–Leninist government]] against [[RENAMO]] in the [[Mozambican Civil War]].{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1p=752|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2p=243}} In February, Castro visited Algeria and then Libya, where he spent ten days with Gaddafi and oversaw the establishment of the [[History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi#Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011)|Jamahariya system of governance]], before attending talks with [[Yemeni Socialist Party|the Marxist government]] of [[South Yemen]]. From there he proceeded to Somalia, Tanzania, Mozambique and Angola where he was greeted by crowds as a hero for Cuba's role in opposing apartheid South Africa.{{sfnm|1a1=Quirk|1y=1993|1pp=759–761|2a1=Coltman|2y=2003|2pp=243–244}} Throughout much of Africa he was hailed as a friend to national liberation from foreign dominance.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|p=750}} This was followed with visits to East Berlin and Moscow.{{sfn|Quirk|1993|pp=766–767}}