Editing Eastern imperial eagle (section)

==Behaviour and ecology==
[[File:Aquila heliaca vs. Eudorcas thomsonii.JPG|thumb|A juvenile imperial eagle facing off with a [[Thomson's gazelle]] mother over its dead calf]]
The eastern imperial eagle is somewhat varied in hunting techniques but almost exclusively takes its prey on the ground. It is possible some prey, such as fledgling birds, are taken from low perches in ambushes but this is seemingly unverified. They are also known to capture prey in water or from the edge of waterways and may even become waterlogged, especially when capturing [[water bird]]s.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Horvath>{{cite journal |author1=Horváth, M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Solti, B. |author3=Fatér, I. |author4=Juhász, T |author5=Haraszthy, L. |author6=Szitta, T. |author7=Bállok, Z. |author8=Pásztory-Kovács, S. |year=2018 |title=Temporal changes in the diet composition of the Eastern Imperial Eagle (''Aquila heliaca'') in Hungary |journal=Ornis Hungarica |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1515/orhu-2018-0001 |s2cid=91465482 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref> Imperial eagles typically still hunt, watching for prey at length from a moderately low perch (usually a tree branch but virtually any perch from rocks to bushes to power poles), then often making a short stoop or dive to the ground once prey is spotted. Alternately, they may make a longer dive onto prey from a low soaring flight, often using any vegetation available to obscure their approach.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/> Some prey are known to be captured on foot, including [[insect]]s and [[ground squirrel]]s, the latter reportedly by waiting by the entrance of the animal's burrow.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ramos-Lara, N. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Koprowski, J. L. |author3=Kryštufek, B. |author4=Hoffmann, I. E. |year=2014 |title=''Spermophilus citellus'' (Rodentia: sciuridae). |journal=Mammalian Species |volume=46 |issue=913 |pages=71–87 |doi=10.1644/913.1 |s2cid=8080957 |url=|doi-access=free }}</ref> Occasionally, this species pirates foods from other eagles and other birds of prey, especially during winter, and also tandem hunts in pairs as well.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/> The eastern Imperial eagle is, like most active predators, an opportunist who exploits any prey they are capable of overpowering.<ref name=Naoroji/> Their prey spectrum is highly varied, including somewhere between 200 and 300 prey species, a total number of prey species only a bit short of the occasionally sympatric [[common buzzard]] (''Buteo buteo'') which may be 500 times more numerous overall.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Horvath/><ref name=Katzner>{{cite journal |author1=Katzner, T.E. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Bragin, E.A. |author3=Knick, S.T. |author4=Smith, A.T. |year=2006 |title=Spatial structure in the diet of Imperial Eagles ''Aquila heliaca'' in Kazakhstan |journal=Journal of Avian Biology |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=594–600|doi=10.1111/j.2006.0908-8857.03617.x |bibcode=2006JAvBi..37..594K }}</ref> In the nations of [[Kazakhstan]] and [[Hungary]] alone, the total recorded prey spectrum is 154 and 126 species, respectively.<ref name=Horvath/><ref name=Katzner/> Small to medium-sized mammals are the most regularly selected prey, with a preference for [[hare]]s, various [[rodent]]s, especially ground squirrels, [[hamster]]s and  [[vole]]s, as well as [[Eulipotyphla|insectivores]]. Furthermore, various birds are taken, at times as much as or more so than mammals, especially the young or fledglings of various medium-sized to larger birds. Birds may locally become the primary foods in some parts of the winter range. [[Reptile]]s are taken secondarily in most of the range but can be locally somewhat important and [[fish]] and [[invertebrate]]s, including insects, may be taken rarely.<ref name=Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Horvath/>

The prey type historically most often associated with the eastern imperial eagle, at least in Europe, has been [[ground squirrel]]s and [[hamster]]s.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name= Brown/><ref>Dudas, M. & Szitta, T. (1989). ''[The ground squirrel as prey]''. Buvar, 45: 22-23.</ref> While these are significant, the primary prey type can vary and often [[hare]]s or [[hedgehog]]s appear to take the primary position in recent studies.<ref name= Horvath/> The largest European dietary study to date, a multi-year analysis from [[Hungary]], showed that [[European hare]] (''Lepus europaeus'') were the primary foods, making up 27.4% of a total of 8,543 prey items. The second best represented prey in Hungary was the [[European hamster]] (''Cricetus cricetus''), at 12.71% of the diet.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Horvath2>{{cite journal |last1=Horváth |first1=M. |display-authors=etal   |year=2010 |title=''Spatial variation in prey composition and its possible effect on reproductive success in an expanding eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) population'' |url=http://actazool.nhmus.hu/56/2/AZH_56_2_Horvath.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://actazool.nhmus.hu/56/2/AZH_56_2_Horvath.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=[[Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae]] |volume=56 |pages=187–200 }}</ref> Similarly, in [[Slovakia]] and the [[Czech Republic]], the European hare was the main prey, comprising 40.2% of 562 prey items and 41.3% of 109 prey items, respectively. The European hamster was the 4th most frequent prey in Slovakia but second most common prey species in the Czech Republic.<ref name= Chavko>Chavko, J., Danko, Š., Obuch, J., & Mihók, J. (2007). ''The food of the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Slovakia''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 1, 1-18.</ref><ref name="Horal">Horal, D. (2011). Eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) in the Czech Republic. Acta Zoologica Bulgarica, 63, 55-59.</ref> As presented in the multi-year studies from Hungary, a seeming decline of the [[European ground squirrel]] (''Spermophilus citellus'') population is the cause of their reduced importance in the imperial eagle's diet, with this species being the primary prey in 1975-1991 (51% of 606 prey items from 1975 to 1985) to contributing almost nothing in 2005-2017.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Horvath2/><ref name= Haraszthy>Haraszthy, L., Bagyura, J., Szitta, T., Petrovics, Z., & Viszló, L. (1996). ''Biology, status and conservation of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Hungary''. Eagle Studies, 425-427.</ref> It is possible with reintroductions of the European ground squirrel underway in [[central Europe]], that this prey species may again become more significant in the eastern imperial eagle's diet again here.<ref>MATĚJŮ, J., ŘÍČANOVÁ, Š., AMBROS, M., KALA, B., HAPL, E., & MATĚJŮ, K. (2010). ''Reintroductions of the European Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus citellus) in Central Europe (Rodentia: Sciuridae)''. Lynx, series nova, 41(1).</ref> In [[Tuva|Tyva Republic]], the [[long-tailed ground squirrel]] (''Spermophilus undulatus'') still dominates the food of imperial eagles, making up 60.1% of 168 prey items.<ref name= Karyakin2>Karyakin, I.V. (2010). ''The Imperial Eagle is a Vanishing Species in the Tyva Republic, Russia''. Raptor Conservation, 20: 177-185.</ref>  In studies of two different areas of [[Bulgaria]], one showed European hares as the main prey (25%) in the Dervent heights and [[southern white-breasted hedgehog]] (''Erinaceus concolor'') (32.5%) in the other, Saker mountain.<ref name= Marin>Marin, S. A., Ivanov, I. I., Georgiev, D. G., & Boev, Z. N. (2004). ''On the food of the imperial eagle Aquila heliaca on Sakar Mountain and Dervent Heights, Bulgaria''. Raptors Worldwide, 589-592.</ref> In [[East Thrace]], [[Turkey]], the same hedgehog was the most important prey, comprising 23.1% of 582 prey items and 21.2% of the prey biomass.<ref name= Demerdzhiev>Demerdzhiev, D., Dobrev, D., Stoychev, S., Terziev, N., Spasov, S., & Boev, Z. (2014). ''Distribution, abundance, breeding parameters, threats and prey preferences of the eastern imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca) in European Turkey''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 8 (1).</ref> 
[[File:Europäischer Ziesel (Spermophilus citellus) Schloss Orth Nationalparkzentrum 9.jpg|thumb|right|[[European ground squirrel]]s are an important food source for eastern imperial eagles.]]
In warmer, southerly areas, the primary prey species seem to generally be smaller. In [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[social vole]]s (''Microtus socialis'') were the primary food, comprising about 15% of 341 prey items.<ref name= Abuladze>Abuladze, A. (1996). ''Ecology of the imperial eagle Aquila heliaca in Georgia''. Eagle Studies, 447-457.</ref> For wintering imperial eagles, the most frequent live prey (though carrion was mainly eaten) was [[Sundevall's jird]] (''Meriones crassus'').<ref name= Hasani>Al Hasani, I. K., Azar, J. F., Nishimura, K., Amr, Z. S., & Katzner, T. E. (2012). ''Distribution, diet and winter ecology of the Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca in Jordan''. VERTEBRATE ZOOLOGY, 62(2), 273-280.</ref> Both of these small rodents probably average only about {{convert|35|to|60|g|oz|abbr=on}} in body mass.<ref>Walker, E. P., Warnick, F., Hamlet, S. E., Lange, K. I., Davis, M. A., Uible, H. E., & Paradiso, J. L. (1975). ''Mammals of the world. Volumes I and II'' (No. 3rd edition). Johns Hopkins University Press.</ref> Numerous other small mammals may also be occasionally taken including several species each of [[hedgehog]]s, [[shrew]]s and [[mole (animal)|mole]]s, beyond the common hare, at least 7 other species of [[lagomorph]]s, about a dozen species each of [[Muridae|murid rodents]] and [[Cricetidae|cricetid rodent]]s (especially [[hamster]]s and [[vole]]s), 5 species of [[Spalacidae|zokor]] and assorted [[dormice]] and [[jerboa]]s. Thus, eastern imperial eagles appear to prefer rodents and similar small mammals that are burrow-dwelling and/or partial to ground dwelling in open grass or fields along wooded edges.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Chavko/><ref name= Karyakin/><ref name= Demerdzhiev/><ref name= Karyakin2/><ref name= Hasani/><ref name= Zhelev>Zhelev, P. V., Gradev, G. Z., Ivanov, I. I., & Georgiev, D. G. (2009). ''Data on the Trophic Spectrum of Young Imperial Eagles (Aquila heliaca Savigny, 1809) in South Bulgaria''. Ecologia Balkanica, 1.</ref><ref>Németh, A., Hegyeli, Z., Sendula, T., Horváth, M., Czabán, D., & Csorba, G. (2016). ''Danger underground and in the open–predation on blind mole rats (Rodentia: Spalacinae) revisited''. Mammal Review, 46(3), 204-214.</ref>
[[File:Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus), Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta) & Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) (32774244330).jpg|thumb|left|An eastern imperial eagle in the upper right side can be seen hunting flocks of [[bar-headed goose]] and [[northern pintail]].]]
Assorted bird species may factor heavily into the diet of eastern imperial eagles. More than 120 bird species are known to be taken by this eagle.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Katzner/> European studies reflect the high importance of [[common pheasant]]s (''Phasianus colchicus''), in Europe a non-native gamebird (although the imperial eagle also encounters and hunts the species extensively in its native range as well), in their foods. In the aforementioned large Hungarian study, pheasants were the third most frequently taken prey species, making up 12% of the diet.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Horvath2/> In the Czech Republic, the pheasant ranked third as well.<ref name="Horal" /> In Slovakia, the pheasant was second only to the hare in frequency, comprising 17.3% of the foods, although exclusively juvenile and hen pheasants (no cocks) were reportedly taken.<ref name= Chavko/> In Bulgarian studies, the [[Chicken|domestic chicken]] (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') seems to take the place of pheasants in their diet, making up 10.8% and 20.8% at Saker mountain and Dervent heights and second most frequently taken prey at both, respectively.<ref name= Marin/> The largest study of the eastern imperial eagle's dietary habits known occurred in the vast [[Naurzum Nature Reserve]] in [[Kazakhstan]], where 11,079 prey items were reviewed. The prey spectrum was exceptionally diverse here, with no one prey reliably being favored by the imperial eagle pairs, despite an ample colony of [[yellow ground squirrel]] (''Spermophilus fulvus'') and [[russet ground squirrel]] (''Spermophilus major'') being nearby and at least three other species of eagles with nearby nesting sites presenting possible resource competition. Without presenting the metrics, apparently birds were the highest volume prey for the imperial eagles, especially [[corvid]]s, namely the [[Rook (bird)|rook]] (''Corvus frugilegus'') and [[Eurasian magpie]] (''Pica pica''), numerous species of [[duck]] as well as [[Eurasian kestrel]]s (''Falco tinnunculus'') and [[little bustard]]s (''Tetrax tetrax'').<ref name= Katzner/><ref name= Katzner2>Katzner, T. E., Bragin, E. A., Knick, S. T., & Smith, A. T. (2005). ''Relationship between demographics and diet specificity of Imperial Eagles Aquila heliaca in Kazakhstan''. Ibis, 147(3), 576-586.</ref> In [[East Thrace]], Turkey, the second most regularly taken prey species is the [[yellow-legged gull]] (''Larus michahellis''), which comprised more than 12% of the diet by number and 13.8% of the prey biomass. Additionally in East Thrace, a high volume of [[white stork]]s (''Ciconia ciconia'') was taken, making up 11.3% of the biomass.<ref name= Demerdzhiev/> In Bulgaria, similar prey were important secondary foods, i.e. [[Caspian gull]]s (''Larus cachinnans'') at 9.78% of the diet in the Saker mountain area, while white stork made up 10.42% of the diet at Dervent heights.<ref name= Marin/> A study of wintering eastern imperial eagles in the [[Bharatpur district]] of [[India]] showed that this species was generally more inactive but also more likely to capture its own food (rather than through scavenging or [[kleptoparasitism]]) than 4 assorted other eagle species in the area. Like other eagles here, the imperial eagles most often fed on various [[water bird]]s, mainly the nestlings of late-nesting [[painted stork]]s (''Ciconia leucocephalus''), [[black-headed ibis]] (''Threskiornis melanocephalus''), [[Oriental darter]]s (''Anhinga melanogaster'') and a couple of species of [[cormorant]]. However, the imperial eagle in particularly here took to regularly hunting various adult water birds especially [[duck]]s, [[Greylag goose|geese]] and large [[Rail (bird)|rail]]s and had a mean daily food intake (not mean prey size) of {{convert|539|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Naoroji/><ref name= Prakash>Prakash, V. (1988). ''The general ecology of raptors in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur'' (Doctoral dissertation, Ph.D. thesis. Bombay University, Mumbai, India).</ref> In the [[Saurashtra (region)|Saurashtra region]] of [[India]], imperial eagles were observed to show a preference for hunting diving water birds, including [[Eurasian coot]]s (''Fulica atra'') and [[diving duck]]s, which they would hunt in a style reminiscent of the [[white-tailed eagle]], forcing them to dive as they circled over the water and capturing them as they came to the water's surface to breathe.<ref name= Dharmakuarsinhji>Dharmakuarsinhji, K.S. (1955). ''Birds of Saurashtra''. Dil Bahar.</ref> Numerous [[Columbidae|pigeons and doves]] may also be taken fairly often, such as in [[Slovakia]] where [[rock dove]]s (''Columba livia'') were the 3rd most often regular prey at 11.79% of the diet.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Chavko/> In general, a picture emerges of the imperial eagle's dietary preference for relatively large birds with conspicuous behaviour, relatively slow flight, who can be struck on or near the ground and/or have vulnerable nesting sites or conspicuous young, such as [[gamebird]]s, [[waterfowl]], other [[water bird]]s and [[corvid]]s.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Katzner/><ref name= Katzner2/>

European studies of the eastern imperial eagle's diet rarely reflect prey outside of the main preferred classes of mammals and birds, however studies from somewhat outside Europe show respectable numbers of [[reptile]]s may be taken. In [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], reptiles amounted to 29.62% of the food, comprised largely either of [[Caucasian agama]] (''Paralaudakia caucasia'') or other unidentified smallish lizards.<ref name= Abuladze/> A larger class of reptiles were regular secondary prey in East Thrace in Turkey, namely [[Greek tortoise]] (''Testudo graeca'') and [[Hermann's tortoise]] (''Testudo hermanni''), with tortoises altogether comprising 11.1% of the diet by number and 13.7% of the prey biomass.<ref name= Demerdzhiev/> Tortoises, along with lizards such as [[spiny-tailed lizard]]s (''Uromastix hardwickii'') and [[monitor lizard]]s (''Varanus'' spp.) can be significant in the diet elsewhere as well, especially in more arid climes.<ref name= Hasani/><ref>Collar, N. J., A. V. Andreev, S. Chan, M. J. Crosby, S. Subramanya, and J. A. Tobias, Editors (2001). Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.</ref> Although [[snake]]s do not seem to be typically quantitatively important, eastern imperial eagles have no problem occasionally subduing large snakes, such as [[Aesculapian snake]]s (''Zamenis longissimus''), or very aggressive venomous snakes, such as [[Russell's viper]] (''Daboia russelii'') (the latter taken in their wintering Indian quarters).<ref name= Naoroji/><ref name= Horvath/> In [[Hungary]], very small numbers of [[invertebrate]]s (mostly [[insect]]s such as [[ground beetle]]s) and [[fish]] were found amongst the foods of imperial eagles.<ref name= Horvath/> Carrion is eaten through the year by eastern imperial eagles, but most heavily during winter.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> For example, in the wintering population of [[Jordan]], 53.7% of the dietary intake of the species was made up of carrion.<ref name= Hasani/> However, in some breeding populations, apparently the eagles can come to rely on dead or already injured prey inadvertently provided by humans, largely due to intensive agricultural practices, as was the case in the [[Czech Republic]].<ref name="Horal" /> In one area of [[Slovakia]], although imperial eagles also hunted, the adult eagles routinely practiced [[kleptoparasitism]] while nesting, regularly robbing other species of raptorial bird of their fresh catches.<ref name= Danko>Danko, Š. (2007). ''Kleptoparasitism by raptors, focusing on the Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca)''. Slovak raptor journal, 1, 29-33.</ref> Almost any mammal or bird will be readily eaten when dead or dying by imperial eagles, with at least 10 species of [[ungulate]] known to be consumed thusly and providing an ample source of meat.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Chavko/><ref name= Marin/>
[[File:Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) - Flickr - Bernd Thaller.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Falconry|falconer's]] eastern imperial eagle, of subadult age, shows its impressive dive toward a [[fox]] dummy, completed in seconds.]]

The size of prey taken by eastern imperial eagles can be fairly variable.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Katzner/> Most live prey taken by eastern imperial eagles weighs less than {{convert|2|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> According to Watson (2010), the prey of imperial eagles is fairly evenly spread from {{convert|63|g|oz|abbr=on}} up to {{convert|2000|g|lb|abbr=on}}, with a peak focus (at around 25%) on prey weighing {{convert|500|and|1000|g|lb|abbr=on}} and a mean estimated prey size of {{convert|565|g|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Watson/> The prefferd sized of prey can be slightly varied throughout the region. In Hungary, staple prey size was estimated at between {{convert|250|g|oz|abbr=on}} and {{convert|2.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Horvath/> By contrast, in Slovakia, maximum weight of live-caught prey was estimated at {{convert|1.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Chavko/>

Many of the prey species taken by imperial eagles are relatively large as adults such as [[European hare]]s and [[bobak marmot]]s (''Marmota bobac''), which were the second most often taken mammalian prey species in Kazakhstan, but generally, these eagles take juvenile specimens of both hares and marmots rather than prime adults. The suggested weight of [[European hare]]s and [[bobak marmot]]s taken in Kazakhstan was estimated at {{convert|1.5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} and {{convert|1.4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, in both cases no less than a third of the average adult weight attainable by the species, indicating that most of the marmot and hare are mainly young.<ref name= Katzner/><ref name= Katzner2/> However, the eastern imperial eagle is capable of taking large prey as well. In some cases, they are capable of taking large sized marmots and adult European hares.<ref>Барбазюк, Е. В. "К распространению орла-могильника и филина на северо-западе Оренбургской области, Россия." Пернатые хищники и их охрана 37 (2018): 252-255.</ref><ref name="Horal" /> Imperial eagles also known to prey on other species such as [[mountain hare]] (''Lepus timidus'') and the [[Tolai hare]] (''Lepus tolai'').<ref name= Karyakin2/><ref name= Ryabtsev>Ryabtsev, V. V. (1984). ''Ecology and conservation of Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) in Pre-Baikal region''. Leningrad State University Newsletter, 9: 20-27.</ref> They have taken adults of numerous larger water birds averaging over the expected prey weight of {{convert|2|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, although nestlings are most often preyed upon, including [[greylag goose]] (''Anser anser''), [[greater white-fronted goose]] (''Anser albifrons''), [[bean goose]] (''Anser fabalis''), [[bar-headed goose]] (''Anser indicus''), [[knob-billed duck]] (''Sarkidiornis melanotos''), [[common crane]] (''Grus grus''), [[great cormorant]] (''Phalacrocorax carbo''), [[white stork]] and [[black stork]] (''Ciconia nigra'').<ref name= HBW/><ref name= Naoroji/><ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Marin/><ref>Nedyalkov, N., Levin, A., Dixon, A., & Boev, Z. (2014). ''Diet of Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) and Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) from Central Kazakhstan''. Ecologia Balkanica, 6(1).</ref><ref name= Altai>Karyakin, I., Nikolenko, E., Vazhov, S., & Bekmansurov, R. (2009). ''Imperial Eagle in the Altai Mountains: Results of the Research in 2009, Russia''. Raptors Conservation, (16).</ref> These avian prey can possibly weigh up to {{convert|5|kg|lb|abbr=on}} in case of common cranes or large geese.<ref name= Katzner/> Additionally, it is known that eastern imperial eagles will also prey upon [[great bustard]]s (''Otis tarda''), though the female is possibly taken as she is about as large as a crane or large goose, it is unlikely that the eagle can take the much larger adult males of this huge ground bird since imperial eagles apparently even avoid adult male birds of much smaller species such as [[Common pheasant|pheasant]]s.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Chavko/><ref>Bankovics, A. (2005). ''A general overview of the threats of Hungarian Great Bustards (Otis tarda)''. Aquila112, 135-142.</ref> Eastern imperial eagles select broadly overlapping prey with [[Carnivora|mammalian carnivorans]] but also fairly regularly attack these as prey. [[Fox]]es are widely known in the foods of imperial eagles but at times visited as carrion. [[Red fox]]es (''Vulpes vulpes'') and [[corsac fox]]es (''Vulpes corsac'') are known to be taken and a predation attempt on [[Bengal fox]]es (''Vulpes bengalensis'') has been reported.<ref name= Horvath/><ref>Heptner, Vladimir G., ed. Mammals of the Soviet Union, Volume 2 Part 2 Carnivora (Hyenas and Cats). Vol. 2. Brill, 1989.</ref><ref name= Katzner/><ref>Archived at [https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/iwi5np4xO3Q Ghostarchive]{{cbignore}} and the [https://web.archive.org/web/20191109021258/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iwi5np4xO3Q&gl=US&hl=en Wayback Machine]{{cbignore}}: {{cite web |url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iwi5np4xO3Q |title=''Eastern Imperial Eagle Attacks Desert Fox'' |author=India Wilds |date=9 January 2017 |publisher=YouTube |access-date=2019-03-29}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Beyond small [[weasel]]s, which are probably no issue for large eagles to attack, larger [[mustelid]]s may be attacked including [[European polecat|European]] (''Mustela putorius'') and [[steppe polecat]]s (''Mustela eversmanii'') and [[stone marten]]s (''Martes foina'').<ref name=Fefelov/><ref name="Horal" /><ref>Karyakin, I. V., Kovalenko, A. V., Levin, A. S., & Pazhenkov, A. S. (2011). Eagles of the Aral-Caspian Region, Kazakhstan. Raptors Conservation, (22).</ref><ref name=Horvath/> On some occasions, [[Cat|domestic cat]]s (''Felis catus'') are sometimes prey for eastern imperial eagles and [[Pallas's cat]]s (''Otocolobus manul'') may too be vulnerable to this eagle.<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Chavko/><ref>Dibadj, P., Jafari, B., Nejat, F., Qashqaei, A. T., & Ross, S. (2018). ''Maternal habitat use of Juniperus excelsa woodland by Pallas's cat Otocolobus manul in Iran''. Zoology and Ecology, 28(4), 421-424.</ref> Eastern imperial eagles also attack the young of [[ungulate]]s at times, reportedly neonatal and mildly older calves and lambs of similar size to the eagles themselves, including species such as [[argali]] (''Ovis ammon''), [[roe deer]] (''Capreolus capreolus''), [[Arabian sand gazelle]] (''Gazella marica'') and [[goitered gazelle]] (''Gazella subgutturosa'').<ref name=Naoroji/><ref name=Chavko/><ref>Baidavletov, R.J. (1999). ''[Data on Ovis ammon L. mortality and its relationship with predators in the hills of Kazakhstan]''. Selevinia: 141-146.</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Riesch, R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Martin, R.A. |author3=Lerp, H. |author4=Plath, M. |author5=Wronski, T. |year=2013 |title=Size and sex matter: reproductive biology and determinants of offspring survival in ''Gazella marica'' |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=110 |issue=1 |pages=116–127 |doi=10.1111/bij.12121|s2cid=83925236 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Bowskill, P. |year=1997 |title=Imperial Eagle stoops on a gazelle |journal=Oman Bird News |issue=20  |pages=8}}</ref> In Africa, the Imperial eagle consumes mammals up to {{cvt|5|kg}} as live prey, which is similar in weight to the largest avian kill in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Cramp, S. |author2=Simmons, K.E.L. |author3=Perrins, C.M. |year=1980 |title=Handbook of the Birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The Birds of the Western Palearctic |location=Oxford  |publisher=Oxford University Press |edition=Second |pages= |chapter= |chapter-url= |isbn= |editor1= |editor2=}}</ref> At the opposite end of the scale in vertebrate prey, imperial eagles are known to take mammals down to the size of the {{cvt|7|g}} [[Eurasian harvest mouse]] (''Micromys minutus'') and birds down to the size of the {{cvt|21.4|g}} [[Eurasian tree sparrow]] (''Passer montanus'').<ref name=CRC/><ref name=Horvath/><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Schuster, A.C. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Carl, T. |author3=Foerster, K. |year=2017 |title=Repeatability and consistency of individual behaviour in juvenile and adult Eurasian harvest mice |journal=The Science of Nature |volume=104 |issue=3–4 |page=10 |doi= 10.1007/s00114-017-1430-3|pmid=28236075 |pmc=5325833 |bibcode=2017SciNa.104...10S |url=}}</ref> Much smaller invertebrate prey such as {{cvt|2|g}} [[locust]] was taken in Kazakhstan.<ref name=Katzner/><ref name=Katzner2/>

===Interspecies predatory relationships===
The eastern imperial eagle is a powerful bird of prey but frequently overlaps in range with multiple other eagle species and that may require them to share both habitats and prey.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The [[golden eagle]] is generally a larger, more powerful bird. It also tends to be a bolder, more aggressive predator than the imperial eagle and may be able to attack much larger prey. While the mean prey body mass relative to the eagle's weight is probably similar between the two species, an estimated 15% of golden eagle prey will weigh over {{convert|5|kg|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Ellis>Ellis, D. H., Tsengeg, P., Whitlock, P., & Ellis, M. H. (2000). ''Predators as prey at a Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos eyrie in Mongolia''. Ibis, 142(1), 141-142.</ref><ref>Kerley, L. L., & Slaght, J. C. (2013). ''First documented predation of Sika deer (Cervus nippon) by Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) in Russian far east''. Journal of Raptor Research, 47(3), 328-331.</ref><ref>Phillips, R. L., Cummings, J. L., Notah, G., & Mullis, C. (1996). ''Golden eagle predation on domestic calves''. Wildlife Society (USA).</ref> In its very extensive range, the golden eagle's distribution includes nearly all areas occupied by breeding eastern imperial eagles. Furthermore, there is considerable overlap in prey species selected by these species.<ref name= Watson/><ref name= Katzner3>Katzner, T. E., Bragin, E. A., Knick, S. T., & Smith, A. T. (2003). ''Coexistence in a multispecies assemblage of eagles in central Asia''. The Condor, 105(3), 538-551.</ref><ref name= Vazhov>Vazhov, S. V. (2012). ''Some Features of the Ecological Niches of Raptors in the Russian Part of the Altai Foothills''. Raptors Conservation, (25).</ref> There is a natural partitioning between the two ''Aquila'' species and that comes in the form of habitat preferences. The golden eagle takes to, usually but not always, rocky and uneven terrain, so favors mountainous areas with alpine meadows to access for prey. This is quite different from the eastern imperial eagle's preference for a flat or somewhat rolling interface between wood stands and fields at low elevations.<ref name= Katzner4>Katzner, T. E., Bragin, E. A., & Milner-Gulland, E. J. (2006). ''Modelling populations of long-lived birds of prey for conservation: a study of imperial eagles (Aquila heliaca) in Kazakhstan''. Biological Conservation, 132(3), 322-335.</ref><ref name= Marti>MARTI, C. D., & KORPIMÁKI, E. (2012). ''TROPHIC STRUCTURE OF RAPTOR COMMUNITIES: A THREE-CONTINENT''. Current Ornithology, 10, 47.</ref> However, in some areas, especially eastern Europe, eastern imperial eagles have been driven to higher elevations and more montane habitats that are typically the haunts of golden eagles by persecution, habitat destruction, and other interferences by humans, usually with mixed to minor success as the golden species is scarce at best locally and unlikely to produce competition.<ref name= Ferguson-Lees/><ref name=Horvath3/> There is surprisingly little information on conflicts between these two eagle species.<ref name= Brown/> In the [[Naurzum Nature Reserve]] of [[Kazakhstan]] the golden and eastern imperial eagle, and to some extent also both [[white-tailed eagle]]s and [[steppe eagle]]s, were recorded nesting with fairly close proximity to each other. The eagle species here would even use nests built by the other species and seemed to have similar or broadly overlapping food habits, but no interspecies conflicts were detected.<ref name= Katzner3/> On the contrary, in the [[Altai Republic]], it appears that golden and eastern imperial eagles are considered to fill a largely similar [[ecological niche]] in abutting areas and do compete for nesting sites.<ref name= Altai/><ref name= Vazhov/> In some cases in Europe, golden and eastern imperial eagles will engage in a territorial display if prompted against one another.<ref>Janossy, D., Janossy, L. & Petrovics, Z. (1993). ''The geological origine [sic] and an observation of mutual display of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) and Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca)''. Aquila a Madartani Intezet Evkonyve, 100: 268-270.</ref>
[[File:Eastern Imperial Eagle (24979452083).jpg|thumb|left|Eastern imperial eagles may be attracted to carrion quite often especially in winter. Here with another scavenger, the [[Egyptian vulture]], in the background.]]
Of a similar distribution to eastern imperial eagles, both in their mid-Eurasian breeding ground and southerly Indo-African wintering grounds, are the [[steppe eagle]] and the [[greater spotted eagle]]. There is a fair amount of habitat partitioning between the three species, however, with the steppe eagle preferring flat, often almost treeless [[steppe]] while the greater spotted eagle prefers more densely wooded and wetter habitats generally than imperial eagles such as [[taiga]] [[bog]]s. Diet however can overlap considerably, especially with steppe eagles as both it and the imperial species are largely attracted to colonies of [[ground squirrel]]s in [[Central Asia]].<ref>Barashkova, A., Smelansky, I., Tomilenko, A., & Akentiev, A. (2009). ''Some Records of Raptors in the East Kazakhstan''. Raptors Conservation, (17).</ref><ref>[[Vladimir E. Flint|Flint, V. E.]], Bourso-Leland, N., & Baird, J. (1984). ''A field guide to birds of the USSR: including Eastern Europe and Central Asia''. Princeton University Press.</ref><ref>Väli, Ü. (2004). ''The greater spotted eagle Aquila clanga and the lesser spotted eagle A. pomarina: taxonomy, phylogeography and ecology''. Tartu University Press.</ref> While steppe eagles occur much more broadly in Africa during winter and a similarly narrow extent in the [[Indian subcontinent]] as eastern imperials, greater spotted eagles are similarly as rare as imperial eagles in Africa but spread farther in Asia than either the steppe or imperial species. In all three species, by winter they are attracted to more open habitats ranging from [[savanna]] to [[wetland]]s and even [[Desert|semi-desert]].<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021" /><ref name= Ferguson-Lees/> The ecology of wintering eastern imperials was studied at length in [[Bharatpur district]] of [[India]] in contrast to the steppe and greater spotted eagle as well as the resident [[Indian spotted eagle]] and shorter-distance migrant [[Pallas's fish eagle]]. It was found that the feeding opportunities sought were largely similar (nestling water birds were often favored) by all five eagle species and that a hierarchy was formed, though each species competed most regularly with others of their own species. The eastern imperial eagle was, by and large, dominant in correspondence to its slightly larger size than the other booted eagles and rivaled the similarly-sized Pallas's fish eagle as the top avian predator in this raptor community. The steppe eagle, despite being only scarcely smaller than an imperial eagle, was usually subordinate to imperial eagles and had a much lower estimated average daily food intake, {{convert|141|g|oz|abbr=on}} against an average of {{convert|539|g|lb|abbr=on}} for the imperial. However, the mean daily intake of Pallas's fish eagle was slightly higher still at {{convert|623|g|lb|abbr=on}} and the fish eagle would perch slightly higher than the imperials as well. In one case, a flock of 9 steppe eagles was able to pirate a freshly caught [[Eurasian coot|coot]] from an imperial eagle. The imperial was the most inactive forager here, having spent 36% of observed hours foraging, against 45% for steppe eagles, 46% for Pallas's fish eagle, 49% for greater spotted eagle and 65% for Indian spotted eagle.<ref name= Naoroji/><ref name= Prakash/> Other studies on the interactions of eastern imperial eagles also support that it is dominant during winter over similar species such as steppe and the spotted eagles at competitive feeding spots.<ref name= Dharmakuarsinhji/><ref>Rasmussen, P.C., & Anderton, J.C. (2005). ''Birds of South Asia: the Ripley guide. Vols. 1-2''. Smithsonian Institution and Lynx Edicions, Washington, D.C. and Barcelona, Spain.</ref> In the [[Korean peninsula]], similarly as in the Indian subcontinent, wintering eastern imperial eagles (though rare) can reportedly be seen more than singly concentrated where there are ample numbers of [[water bird]]s along with other large eagles.<ref>Choi, C. Y., & Park, J. G. (2012). ''Birds of prey in Korea''. Korean Wild Birds Society & Shinan County, Seoul, South Korea.</ref> Next to nothing is known about the ecology of the rare, seldom-observed wintering population of eastern imperial eagles in [[east Africa]] but it is claimed to usually be seen in the company of “other brown eagles”.<ref name= Kemp/>

As its preferred habitat seldom overlaps with larger eagles such as golden eagles and [[white-tailed eagle]]s, the eastern imperial eagle is usually the top avian predator in its breeding grounds. In particular, smaller raptors with largely overlapping diets (i.e. [[ground squirrel]]s, [[hamster]]s, [[vole]]s & [[lagomorph]]s) and habitat preferences such as [[saker falcon]]s (''Falco cherrug'') and [[long-legged buzzard]]s (''Buteo rufinus'') are often at a disadvantage in direct competition with the eagle species.<ref>Bagyura, J., Szitta, T., Haraszthy, L., Viszló, L., Fidlóczky, J., & Prommer, M. (2012). ''Results of the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug) conservation programme in Hungary between 1980–2010''. Aquila, 119, 105-110.</ref><ref>Udvardy, M. D. F. (1951). ''The significance of interspecific competition in bird life''. Oikos, 3(1), 98-123.</ref><ref>Lindeman, G.V. (1985). ''[The Barrow Buzzard (Buteo rufinus Cretzschm.) in the interstream area between Volga and Ural Rivers.]'' 90: 27-37.</ref> In [[Slovakia]], some pairs of imperial eagle were reported to [[Kleptoparasitism|kleptoparasitize]] other raptors as a matter of routine. Here, four species consisting of [[saker falcon]]s, [[western marsh harrier]] (''Circus aeruginosus''), [[black-winged kite]] (''Elanus caeruleus'') and [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]] (''Accipiter nisus'') as well as [[red fox]]es were all robbed of their catches with a remarkable degree of success by imperial eagles. The eagles so heavily depleted the falcons' catches that the falcons’ nesting attempts failed.<ref name= Danko/> A still swifter falcon than the saker, the [[peregrine falcon]] (''Falco peregrinus'') was observed successfully robbing imperial eagles and a few other raptorial birds several times when the species nested near each other in the lower [[Sakmara river]] of [[Russia]] (although in one case, a juvenile peregrine was killed by the golden eagle it was attempting to rob). Interestingly, many of the imperial eagle kills that were robbed by the peregrines were other species of bird of prey.<ref name= Moshkin>Moshkin, A. (2009). ''Kleptoparasitism-One of Hunting Technique of the Peregrine Falcon that Became Common under Condition of the Increase in its Number in the Southern Ural Mountains, Russia''. Raptors Conservation, (17).</ref> In [[Tatarstan]], [[Russia]] it was found that eastern imperial eagles have begun nesting in atypical habitats and locations, namely the old nests of white-tailed eagles in isolated trees amongst open wetlands and old nests of a greater spotted eagle in densely wooded bogs. Despite the remaining presence of both other eagle species in the area, competition is probably not the driver for the imperial eagle altering its nesting habits but instead, it is likely due to the heavy human-caused depletion of the imperial eagles preferred prey of ground squirrels and hamsters in the area, with the wetland-located nests putting them close to currently reliable alternate primary foods, mainly water birds.<ref name= Bekmansurov>Bekmansurov, R. H., Karyakin, I. V., & Shnayder, E. P. (2015). ''On Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) breeding in atypical habitat under competitive conditions with other eagle species''. Slovak Raptor Journal, 9(1), 95-104.</ref>

The eastern imperial eagle may be characterized as an occasional and opportunistic predator of other birds of prey. The following raptorial birds have been known to fall prey this eagle: the [[lesser spotted eagle]] (''Clanga pomarina''), [[European honey buzzard]] (''Pernis apivorus''), [[black kite]] (''Milvus migrans''), [[hen harrier]] (''Circus cyaneus''), [[Montagu's harrier]] (''Circus pygargus''), [[western marsh harrier]], [[Eurasian sparrowhawk]], [[northern goshawk]] (''Accipiter gentilis''), [[common buzzard]] (''Buteo buteo''), [[long-legged buzzard]], [[rough-legged buzzard]] (''Buteo lagopus''), [[Ural owl]] (''Strix uralensis''), [[tawny owl]] (''Strix alucco''), [[little owl]] (''Athene noctua''), [[long-eared owl]] (''Asio otus''), [[short-eared owl]] (''Asio flammeus''), [[Eurasian hobby]] (''Falco subbuteo''), [[common kestrel]] (''Falco tinnunculus''), [[lesser kestrel]] (''Falco naumanni''), [[Merlin (bird)|merlin]] (''Falco columbarius''), [[red-footed falcon]] (''Falco vespertinus''), [[saker falcon]] and [[peregrine falcon]].<ref name= Horvath/><ref name= Katzner/><ref name= Chavko/><ref name= Demerdzhiev/><ref name= Hasani/><ref name= Katzner2/><ref name= Moshkin/><ref name= Korepov>Korepov, M.V. & Borodin, O.V. (2013). ''The Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) is a natural symbol of the Ulyanovsk region''. - Ulyanovsk: Volga Research Center.— 120 p.</ref><ref name= Adamian>Adamian, M. S., & Klem, D. (1999). ''Handbook of the Birds of Armenia''. American University of Armenia.</ref><ref>Zuberogoitia, I., Arroyo, B., O’Donoghue, B., Zabala, J., Martínez, J. A., Martínez, J. E., & Murphy, S. G. (2012). ''Standing out from the crowd: are patagial wing tags a potential predator attraction for harriers (Circus spp.)?'' Journal of ornithology, 153(3), 985-989.</ref> Although it may be classed properly as an [[apex predator]], eastern imperial eagles have fallen prey to other birds of prey on rare occasions. An instance of predation was reportedly committed by a [[white-tailed eagle]].<ref name= Palmer>Palmer, R. S. (Ed.). (1988). ''Handbook of North American Birds Volume VI: Diurnal Raptors (Part 1)''. Yale University Press.</ref> Furthermore, imperial eagles may be vulnerable at their nest to nighttime ambushes by [[Eurasian eagle-owl]]s (''Bubo bubo'').<ref name= Watson/><ref>Penteriani, V., & del Mar Delgado, M. (2019). ''The eagle owl''. Bloomsbury Publishing.</ref>