Editing Dream interpretation (section)

===Jung===
Although not dismissing Freud's model of dream interpretation wholesale, [[Carl Jung]] believed Freud's notion of dreams as representations of unfulfilled wishes to be limited. Jung argued that Freud's procedure of collecting associations to a dream would bring insights into the dreamer's mental complex—a person's associations to anything will reveal the mental complexes, as Jung had shown experimentally<ref>Jung, C.G. (1902) The associations of normal subjects. In: ''Collected Works of C. G. Jung'', vol. 2. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, pp. 3–99.</ref>—but not necessarily closer to the meaning of the dream.<ref>Jacobi, J. (1973) ''The Psychology of C. G. Jung.'' New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.</ref> Jung was convinced that the scope of dream interpretation was larger, reflecting the richness and complexity of the entire [[unconscious mind|unconscious]], both personal and [[collective unconscious|collective]]. Jung believed the psyche to be a self-regulating organism in which conscious attitudes were likely to be compensated for unconsciously (within the dream) by their opposites.<ref name="Anthony Storr 1983">{{Cite book |author=Storr, Anthony |author-link=Anthony Storr |title=The Essential Jung |location=New York |year=1983 |isbn=0-691-02455-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialjung00jung }}</ref> And so the role of dreams is to lead a person to wholeness through what Jung calls "a dialogue between ego and the self". The self aspires to tell the ego what it does not know, but it should. This dialogue involves fresh memories, existing obstacles, and future solutions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://psychcentral.com/lib/jungs-dream-theory-and-modern-neuroscience-from-fallacies-to-facts/|title=Jung's Dream Theory and Modern Neuroscience: From Fallacies to Facts|last=Lone|first=Zauraiz|date=2018-09-26|website=World of Psychology|language=en-US|access-date=2019-04-30}}</ref>

Jung proposed two basic approaches to analyzing dream material: the objective and the subjective.<ref>Jung, C.G. (1948) General aspects of dream psychology. In: ''Dreams.'' trans., R. Hull.  Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974, pp. 23–66.</ref> In the objective approach, every person in the dream refers to the person they are: mother is mother, girlfriend is girlfriend, etc.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=What does it mean to be human? Life, Death, Personhood and the Transhumanist Movement|last=Doyle|first=D. John|publisher=Springer|year=2018|isbn=9783319949505|location=Cham, Switzerland|pages=173|oclc=1050448349}}</ref> In the subjective approach, every person in the dream represents an aspect of the dreamer. Jung argued that the subjective approach is much more difficult for the dreamer to accept, but that in most good dream-work, the dreamer will come to recognize that the dream characters can represent an unacknowledged aspect of the dreamer. Thus, if the dreamer is being chased by a crazed killer, the dreamer may come eventually to recognize his own [[Homicide|homicidal]] impulses.<ref name=":1" /> [[Gestalt therapy|Gestalt]] therapists extended the subjective approach, claiming that even the inanimate objects in a dream can represent aspects of the dreamer.

Jung believed that [[archetypes]] such as the [[anima (Jung)|animus]], the [[anima (Jung)|anima]], the [[shadow (psychology)|shadow]], and others manifested themselves in dreams, as dream symbols or figures. Such figures could take the form of an old man, a young maiden, or a giant spider as the case may be. Each represents an unconscious attitude that is largely hidden to the conscious mind. Although an integral part of the dreamer's psyche, these manifestations were largely autonomous and were perceived by the dreamer to be external personages. Acquaintance with the archetypes as manifested by these symbols serve to increase one's awareness of unconscious attitudes, integrating seemingly disparate parts of the psyche and contributing to the process of holistic self-understanding he considered paramount.<ref name="Anthony Storr 1983"/>

Jung believed that material repressed by the conscious mind, postulated by Freud to comprise the unconscious, was similar to his own concept of the shadow, which in itself is only a small part of the unconscious.

Jung cautioned against blindly ascribing meaning to dream symbols without a clear understanding of the client's personal situation. He described two approaches to dream symbols: the causal approach and the final approach.<ref>Jung, C.G. (1948) op.cit.</ref> In the causal approach, the symbol is reduced to certain fundamental tendencies. Thus, a sword may symbolize a penis, as may a snake. In the final approach, the dream interpreter asks, "Why this symbol and not another?" Thus, a sword representing a penis is hard, sharp, inanimate, and destructive. A snake representing a penis is alive, dangerous, perhaps poisonous, and slimy. The final approach will tell additional things about the dreamer's attitudes.

Technically, Jung recommended stripping the dream of its details and presenting the gist of the dream to the dreamer. This was an adaptation of a procedure described by [[Wilhelm Stekel]], who recommended thinking of the dream as a newspaper article and writing a headline for it.<ref>Stekel, W. (1911) ''Die Sprache des Traumes'' (The Language of the Dream). Wiesbaden: J.F. Berman</ref> [[Harry Stack Sullivan]] also described a similar process of "dream distillation."<ref>Sullivan, H.S. (1953) ''The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry.'' New York: Norton.</ref>

Although Jung acknowledged the universality of archetypal symbols, he contrasted this with the concept of a sign—images having a one-to-one connotation with their meaning. His approach was to recognize the dynamism and fluidity that existed between symbols and their ascribed meaning. Symbols must be explored for their personal significance to the patient, instead of having the dream conform to some predetermined idea. This prevents dream analysis from devolving into a theoretical and dogmatic exercise that is far removed from the patient's own psychological state. In the service of this idea, he stressed the importance of "sticking to the image"—exploring in depth a client's association with a particular image. This may be contrasted with Freud's free associating which he believed was a deviation from the salience of the image. He describes for example the image "deal table." One would expect the dreamer to have some associations with this image, and the professed lack of any perceived significance or familiarity whatsoever should make one suspicious. Jung would ask a patient to imagine the image as vividly as possible and to explain it to him as if he had no idea as to what a "deal table" was. Jung stressed the importance of context in dream analysis.

Jung stressed that the dream was not merely a devious puzzle invented by the unconscious to be deciphered, so that the ''true'' causal factors behind it may be elicited. Dreams were not to serve as lie detectors, with which to reveal the insincerity behind conscious thought processes. Dreams, like the unconscious, had their own language. As representations of the unconscious, dream images have their own primacy and mechanics.

Jung believed that dreams may contain ineluctable truths, philosophical pronouncements, illusions, wild fantasies, memories, plans, irrational experiences, and even [[Telepathy|telepathic]] visions.<ref>{{Cite book|author= Jung, Carl |author-link=Carl Jung |title=The Practice of Psychotherapy. The Practical Use of Dream-analysis |year=1934 |page=147 |isbn=0-7100-1645-X}}</ref> Just as the psyche has a diurnal side which we experience as conscious life, it has an unconscious nocturnal side which we apprehend as dreamlike fantasy. Jung would argue that just as we do not doubt the importance of our conscious experience, then we ought not to second guess the value of our unconscious lives.