Editing Domitian (section)

== Emperor (81–96) ==

=== Rule ===
[[File:Domitian Tetradrachm 1.jpg|thumb|400px|left|A silver tetradrachm of Domitian from the Antioch Mint in Syria. c 91–92 AD.{{efn|Obverse: Laureate bust of Emperor Domitian facing right, Classical Medusa at the nick of Domitians neck. Legend reads: AYTO. KAIΣAP ΔOMITIANOΣ ΣEB. ΓEPM. (imp. caesar Domitianus Avg. Germ.) Reverse: Eagle standing on a thunderbolt, palm before, wings open, head facing right, holding wreath in its beak. Legend reads: ETOYΣ NEOY ΙEPOY ENΔEKATOY (new sacred year eleventh) Size: 27mm, 14.8g Reference: Prieur p. 22, no. 147S}}]]

As emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign.<ref name=jones-22>Jones (1992), p. 22</ref> By moving the centre of government to the imperial [[royal court|court]], Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jones |first=Brian W. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43660547 |title=Pallas |date=1994 |issue=40 |publisher=Presses Universitaires du Midi |page=331 |jstor=43660547 |issn=0031-0387}}</ref> According to Pliny the Younger, Domitian believed that the Roman Empire was to be governed as a [[Divine Right of Kings|divine monarchy]] with himself as the [[Benevolent dictatorship|benevolent despot]] at its head.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Brunt |first=P. A. |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/299067 |title=The Journal of Roman Studies |date=1979 |volume=69 |page=173 |publisher=Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies, Cambridge University Press |doi=10.2307/299067 |jstor=299067 |s2cid=163284681 |issn=0075-4358}}</ref> In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and [[moral authority]].<ref name=jones-99>Jones (1992), p. 99</ref> To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor [[Augustus]].<ref name=jones-72>Jones (1992), p. 72</ref>

Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: [[edict]]s were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced.<ref name=jones-107>Jones (1992), p. 107</ref> According to Suetonius, the imperial [[bureaucracy]] never ran more efficiently than under Domitian, whose exacting standards and suspicious nature maintained historically low corruption among [[Roman governor|provincial governors]] and elected officials.<ref name=jones-109>Jones (1992), p. 109</ref><ref name="suetonius-domitian-8">Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#8 8]</ref> Although he made no pretence regarding the significance of the Senate under his absolute rule, those senators he deemed unworthy were expelled from the Senate, and in the distribution of public offices he rarely favoured family members, a policy that stood in contrast to the [[nepotism]] practiced by Vespasian and Titus.<ref name=jones-164>Jones (1992), p. 164</ref>

Above all, however, Domitian valued loyalty and malleability in those he assigned to strategic posts, qualities he found more often in men of the equestrian order than in members of the Senate or his own family, whom he regarded with suspicion, and promptly removed from office if they disagreed with imperial policy.<ref name=jones-178>Jones (1992), pp. 178–179</ref> The reality of Domitian's autocracy was further highlighted by the fact that, more than any emperor since [[Tiberius]], he spent significant periods of time away from the capital.<ref name=jones-150/> Although the Senate's power had been in decline since the fall of the Republic, under Domitian the seat of power was no longer even in Rome, but rather wherever the Emperor was.<ref name=jones-22/> Until the completion of the [[Flavian Palace]] on the [[Palatine Hill]], the imperial court was situated at [[Villa of Domitian|Alba]] or [[Villa of Domitian (Sabaudia)|Circeii]], and sometimes even farther afield. Domitian toured the European provinces extensively, and spent at least three years of his reign in Germania and [[Illyricum (Roman province)|Illyricum]], conducting military campaigns on the frontiers of the Empire.<ref name=jones-26>Jones (1992), pp. 26–28</ref>

===Building program===
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 | footer      = "Gate of Domitian and [[Trajan]]" at the northern entrance of the [[Dendera Temple complex|Temple of Hathor]], and Domitian as Pharaoh on the same gate, in [[Dendera]], [[Egypt]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Bard |editor1-first=Kathryn A. |editor1-link=Kathryn A. Bard |title=Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-66525-9 |pages=252–254 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AWSGAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA252 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Bard |first1=Kathryn A. |title=An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-67336-2 |page=325 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ovU1BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA325 |language=en}}</ref>
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At the time of Domitian's accession the city was still suffering from the damage caused by the civil war of 69 and the fire in 80.<ref name = jones-79/> Much more than a renovation project, Domitian's building program was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, achievements second only to those of Augustus.<ref name=jones-79>Jones (1992), p. 79</ref> Among the most important new structures were the [[Stadium of Domitian]] (today occupied by the [[Piazza Navona]]) and the neighbouring [[Odeon of Domitian]], Rome's first permanent venues for Greek-style athletics and artistic competitions which he reintroduced with the [[Capitoline Games]].<ref>{{cite book | first=Leland M. | last=Roth | year=1993 | title=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning | edition=First | publisher=Westview Press | location=Boulder, CO | isbn=0-06-430158-3 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth/page/233 233] | url=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth/page/233 }}</ref>

The most important building Domitian restored was the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus]] on the Capitoline Hill, said to have been covered with a [[gilding|gilded]] roof:

{{blockquote|"Even the gilding alone of this temple’s roof, costing more than 12,000 talents, is beyond the means of the richest private citizen in Rome today."<ref>Plutarch, Publicola, 15.1-3</ref>}}

His expansive and sumptuous palace on the Palatine Hill known as the [[Flavian Palace]] was designed by Domitian's master architect [[Rabirius (architect)|Rabirius]].<ref>Jones (1992), pp. 84–88</ref>

Among buildings he completed were the [[Temple of Vespasian and Titus]], the [[Arch of Titus]] and the [[Colosseum]], to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.<ref name=jones-93/>

In Egypt too, Domitian was active in constructing buildings and decorating them. He appears, together with [[Trajan]], in offering scenes on the propylon of the [[Dendera Temple complex|Temple of Hathor]] at [[Dendera]]. His [[cartouche]] also appears in the column shafts of the Temple of [[Khnum]] at [[Esna]].<ref name="PAS">"Trajan was, in fact, quite active in Egypt. Separate scenes of Domitian and Trajan making offerings to the gods appear on reliefs on the propylon of the Temple of Hathor at Dendera. There are cartouches of Domitian and Trajan on the column shafts of the Temple of Knum at Esna, and on the exterior a frieze text mentions Domitian, Trajan, and Hadrian"  {{cite book |last1=Stadter |first1=Philip A. |last2=Stockt |first2=L. Van der |title=Sage and Emperor: Plutarch, Greek Intellectuals, and Roman Power in the Time of Trajan (98–117 A.D.) |date=2002 |publisher=Leuven University Press |isbn=978-90-5867-239-1 |page=75 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJjiYdxHmPMC&pg=PA75 |language=en}}</ref><ref>[[:File:Esna Tempel 36.jpg|Domitian relief in Esna]]</ref>

==== Palaces and villas====

For his personal use, he was active in constructing many monumental buildings, including the [[Villa of Domitian]], a vast and sumptuous palace situated 20&nbsp;km outside Rome in the Alban Hills. In Rome itself, he built the sumptuous [[Palace of Domitian]] on the [[Palatine Hill]].<ref>Plutarch, Publicola, 15.1-3</ref> 

{{blockquote|"...if anyone who is amazed at the costliness of the Capitol had seen a single colonnade in the palace of Domitian.....he would have been moved to say to Domitian: ''Tis not pious, nor nobly ambitious that thou art; thou art diseased; thy mania is to build; like the famous Midas, thou desirest that every thing become gold and stone at thy touch.''"<ref>Plutarch, Publicola, 15.1-3</ref>}}

Seven other villa-palaces are linked with Domitian at [[Tusculum]], [[Antium]], [[Villa of Domitian (Sabaudia)|Sabaudia]], [[Imperial Villa of Vicarello|Vicarello]], [[Caieta (city)|Caieta]], [[Terracina]]<ref>Martial V 1</ref> and [[Baiae]].<ref>Martial IV 30</ref> Only those at Sabaudia and Vicarello have been positively identified.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Darwall-Smith |first=Robin |date=1994 |title=Albanum and the villas of Domitian |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/palla.1994.1315 |journal=Pallas |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=145–165 |doi=10.3406/palla.1994.1315 |issn=0031-0387}}</ref>

=== Economy ===

[[Image:Domitian denarius son.png|thumb|400px|Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman currency by increasing the silver content of the [[denarius]] by 8.88%. This coin commemorates the [[apotheosis|deification]] of Domitian's son.{{efn|Caption: IMP. CAES. DOMITIANVS AVG. P. M. / DIVUS CAESAR MP. DOMITIANI F.}}]]

Domitian's tendency towards [[micromanagement]] was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign.<ref name=jones-73>Jones (1992), p. 73</ref> Upon his accession he revalued the [[Roman currency]] dramatically. He increased the silver purity of the [[denarius]] from 90% to 98% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87&nbsp;grams to 3.26&nbsp;grams. A financial crisis in 85 forced a [[devaluation]] of the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04&nbsp;grams respectively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081101003844/http://www.tulane.edu/~august/handouts/601cprin.htm|archive-date=1 November 2008|title=Roman Currency of the Principate|date=1 November 2008}}</ref><ref name=jones-75>Jones (1992), p. 75</ref> Nevertheless, the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years.<ref name=jones-75/> Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits.<ref name=jones-75/>

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1.2 billion [[sestertius|sestertii]], of which over one-third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army.<ref name=jones-73/> 

In order to appease the people of Rome an estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donatives, or ''[[congiarium|congiaria]]'', throughout Domitian's reign.<ref name=jones-74>Jones (1992), p. 74</ref> The Emperor also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86 he founded the [[Capitoline Games]] in his stadium, a quadrennial contest comprising [[Athletic sport|athletic displays]], [[chariot racing]], and competitions for [[Public speaking|oratory]], music and acting.<ref name=jones-103>Jones (1992), p. 103</ref>

=== Military campaigns ===

[[File:Qobustan inscription.jpg|thumb|350px|left|A rock inscription at [[Gobustan, Baku|Gobustan]], [[Azerbaijan]] (then [[Caucasian Albania]]), mentioning Domitian and [[Legio XII Fulminata]]; the easternmost-known Roman inscription]]

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare.<ref name = jones-127/> His most significant military contribution was the development of the [[Limes Germanicus]], which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire.<ref name=jones-131>Jones (1992), p. 131</ref> Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the [[Chatti]], and across the [[Danube]] frontier against the [[Suebi]], the [[Sarmatians]], and the [[Dacians]].<ref name = jones-130/>

The conquest of Britain continued under the command of [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]], who expanded the Roman Empire as far as [[Caledonia]], or modern day [[Scotland]]. Domitian also founded a new [[Roman legion|legion]] in 82, the [[Legio I Minervia]], to fight against the Chatti.<ref name = jones-130/> Domitian is also credited on the easternmost evidence of Roman military presence,<ref>{{cite book | last = Millar| first =Fergus| title =Rome, the Greek World, and the East: The Roman Republic and the Augustan revolution| publisher = UNC Press Books|year = 2002| page = 51| isbn = 978-0-8078-4990-3}}</ref> the rock inscription near Boyukdash mountain, in present-day [[Azerbaijan]]. As judged by the carved titles of Caesar, Augustus and Germanicus, the related march took place between 84 and 96 AD.

Domitian's administration of the Roman army was characterized by the same fastidious involvement he exhibited in other branches of the government. His competence as a military strategist was criticized by his contemporaries however.<ref name=jones-127>Jones (1992), p. 127</ref> Although he claimed several triumphs, these were largely propaganda manoeuvres. Tacitus derided Domitian's victory against the Chatti as a "mock triumph", and criticized his decision to retreat in Britain following the conquests of Agricola.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-39>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#39|39]]</ref><ref>Tacitus, ''Histories'' [[s:The Histories (Tacitus)/Book 1#2|I.2]]</ref> Nevertheless, Domitian appears to have been very popular among the soldiers, spending an estimated three years of his reign among the army on campaigns—more than any emperor since Augustus—and raising their pay by one-third.<ref name=jones-131/><ref>Syme (1930), p. 64</ref> While the army command may have disapproved of his tactical and strategic decisions, the loyalty of the common soldier was unquestioned.<ref name=jones-144>Jones (1992), p. 144</ref>

==== Campaign against the Chatti ====

Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a [[census]], and suddenly ordered an attack on the [[Chatti]].<ref name=jones-128>Jones (1992), p. 128</ref> For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75&nbsp;kilometres (46&nbsp;mi) of roads through Chattan territory to uncover the enemy's hiding places.<ref name=jones-130>Jones (1992), p. 130</ref> Although little information survives of the battles fought, enough early victories were apparently achieved for Domitian to be back in Rome by the end of 83, where he celebrated an elaborate triumph and conferred upon himself the title of ''Germanicus''.<ref name=jones-129>Jones (1992), p. 129</ref> Domitian's supposed victory was much scorned by ancient authors, who described the campaign as "uncalled for",<ref name=suetonius-domitian-6>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#6 6]</ref> and a "mock triumph".<ref name=tacitus-agricola-39/> The evidence lends some credence to these claims, as the Chatti would later play a significant role during the revolt of Saturninus in 89.<ref name=jones-131/>

==== Conquest of northern Britain (77–84) ====

{{Main|Roman conquest of Britain}}

[[File:Statue of Agricola at Bath cropped.png|thumb|180px|upright|[[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] ([[Bath, Somerset|Bath]])]]

One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law [[Gnaeus Julius Agricola]] largely concerns the conquest of northern Britain between 77 and 84.<ref name=jones-131/> Agricola arrived {{circa|77}} as governor of [[Roman Britain]], immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modern [[Scotland]]). In 82, Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-24-1>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#24|24]]</ref> He fortified the coast facing [[Ireland]],{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few [[auxilia]]ries.<ref name=jones-132>Jones (1992), p. 132</ref> He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Reed | first = Nicholas | title = The Fifth Year of Agricola's Campaigns | journal = Britannia | volume = 2 | year = 1971 | pages = 143–148 | jstor = 525804| doi =10.2307/525804 | s2cid = 164089455 }}</ref>

Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the [[River Forth]] into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at [[Inchtuthil]].<ref name=jones-132/> In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by [[Calgacus]], at the [[Battle of Mons Graupius]].<ref name=tacitus-agricola-24-2>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#29|29]]</ref> Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the enemy, two-thirds of the Caledonian army escaped and hid in the Scottish marshes and [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]], ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.<ref name=jones-132/> In 85, Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian, having served for more than six years as governor, longer than normal for consular legates during the Flavian era.<ref name=jones-132/>

Tacitus claims that Domitian ordered his recall because Agricola's successes outshone the Emperor's own modest victories in Germania.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-39/> The relationship between Agricola and the Emperor is unclear: on the one hand, Agricola was awarded triumphal decorations and a statue, on the other, Agricola never again held a civil or military post in spite of his experience and renown. He was offered the governorship of the [[province of Africa]] but declined it, either due to ill health or, as Tacitus claims, the machinations of Domitian.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-24-3>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#42|42]]</ref> Not long after Agricola's recall from Britain, the Roman Empire entered into war with the [[Dacia|Kingdom of Dacia]] in the East. Reinforcements were needed, and in 87 or 88, Domitian ordered a large-scale strategic [[Withdrawal (military)|withdrawal]] of troops in the British province. The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled and the Caledonian forts and watchtowers abandoned, moving the Roman frontier some 120&nbsp;kilometres (75&nbsp;mi) further south.<ref name=jones-133>Jones (1992), p. 133</ref> The army command may have resented Domitian's decision to retreat, but to him the Caledonian territories never represented anything more than a loss to the Roman treasury.<ref name=jones-131/>

====Dacian wars (85–88)====
{{further|Domitian's Dacian War}}

The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the [[Danube]] river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King [[Decebalus]], crossed the Danube into the province of [[Moesia]], wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor [[Oppius Sabinus]].<ref name=jones-138>Jones (1992), p. 138</ref> Domitian quickly launched a [[counterattack|counteroffensive]], personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect [[Cornelius Fuscus]]. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph.<ref name=jones-139>Jones (1992), p. 139</ref>

The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Fuscus was killed, and the [[Aquila (Roman)|battle standard]] of the Praetorian Guard was lost.<ref name=jones-138/> The loss of the battle standard, or ''[[Aquila (Roman)|aquila]]'', was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman national pride. Domitian returned to Moesia in August 86. He divided the province into Lower Moesia and Upper Moesia, and transferred three additional legions to the Danube. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under the command of [[Tettius Julianus]], and finally defeated [[Decebalus]] in late 88 at the same site where Fuscus had previously perished.<ref name=jones-142>Jones (1992), p. 142</ref> An attack on the Dacian capital [[Sarmizegetusa Regia|Sarmizegetusa]] was forestalled when new troubles arose on the Germanic frontier in 89.<ref name=jones-150>Jones (1992), p. 150</ref>

In order to avert having to conduct a war on two fronts, Domitian agreed to terms of peace with Decebalus, negotiating free access of Roman troops through the Dacian region while granting Decebalus an annual subsidy of 8 million sesterces.<ref name=jones-150/> Contemporary authors severely criticized this treaty, which was considered shameful to the Romans and left the deaths of Sabinus and Fuscus unavenged.<ref name=jones-195>Jones (1992), p. 195</ref> For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful [[client state|client kingdom]], but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses.<ref name=Salmon/> Domitian probably wanted a new war against the Dacians, and reinforced Upper Moesia with two more cavalry units brought from Syria and with at least five cohorts brought from Pannonia. Trajan continued Domitian's policy and added two more units to the auxiliary forces of Upper Moesia, and then he used the build up of troops for his Dacian wars.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Knight | first = D. J. | title = The Movements of the Auxilia from Augustus to Hadrian | journal = Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik | volume = 85 | year = 1991 | pages = 189–208 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Matei-Popescu | first = Florian | title = The Auxiliary Units from Moesia Superior in Domitian's Time and the Problem of CIL XVI 41 | journal = Ephemeris Napocensis | volume = 16–17 | year = 2006–2007 | pages = 31–48 }}</ref> Eventually the Romans achieved a decisive victory against Decebalus in 106. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the Dacian gold and silver mines.<ref name=Salmon>{{cite journal | last = Salmon | first = Edward Togo | title = Trajan's Conquest of Dacia | journal = Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association | volume = 67 | pages = 83–105 | year = 1936 | jstor = 283229 | doi = 10.2307/283229 }}</ref>

===Religious policy===

[[File:Genius Domitian Musei Capitolini MC1130.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Genius (mythology)|genius]]'' of Domitian with the [[aegis]] and a [[cornucopia]], marble statue, [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome]]

Domitian firmly believed in the traditional [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman religion]], and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]],<ref name=jones-99/> perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A small [[chapel]] dedicated to ''Jupiter Conservator'' was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive [[Temple of Jupiter Custos|building, dedicated to Jupiter Custos]].<ref name=jones-88>Jones (1992), p. 88</ref> The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was [[Minerva]]. Not only did he keep a personal shrine dedicated to her in his bedroom, she regularly appeared on his coinage—in four different attested reverse types—and he founded a legion, [[Legio I Minervia]], in her name.<ref name=jones-100>Jones (1992), p. 100</ref>

Domitian also revived the practice of the [[imperial cult (ancient Rome)|imperial cult]], which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, his first act as emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece, Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. With regards to the emperor himself as a religious figure, both Suetonius and [[Cassius Dio]] allege that Domitian officially gave himself the title of ''Dominus et Deus'' ("Lord and God").<ref>Suetonius, ''Domitian'', 13:2</ref><ref>Dio, ''Roman History'', 67:4:7</ref> However, not only did he reject the title of ''Dominus'' during his reign,<ref name=jones-108>Jones (1992), p. 108</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Light From the Ancient East|last=contra Deissmann|first=Adolf|publisher=Hendrickson Publishers|year=1995|isbn=978-1-56563-155-7|location=Peabody, Massachusetts|pages=357, n. 1}}</ref> but since he issued no official documentation or coinage to this effect, historians such as Brian Jones contend that such phrases were addressed to Domitian by flatterers who wished to earn favors from him.<ref name=jones-109/> To foster the worship of the imperial family, he erected a dynastic [[mausoleum]] on the site of Vespasian's former house on the [[Quirinal Hill|Quirinal]],<ref name=jones-87>Jones (1992), p. 87</ref> and completed the [[Temple of Vespasian and Titus]], a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother.<ref name=jones-93/> To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Templum Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus.

Construction projects such as these constituted only the most visible part of Domitian's religious policy, which also concerned itself with the fulfilment of religious law and public morals. In 85, he nominated himself perpetual censor, the office that held the task of supervising Roman morals and conduct.<ref name=jones-106>Jones (1992), p. 106</ref> Once again, Domitian acquitted himself of this task dutifully, and with care. He renewed the ''[[Lex Julia|Lex Iulia de Adulteriis Coercendis]]'', under which adultery was punishable by exile. From the list of jurors he struck an equestrian who had divorced his wife and taken her back, while an ex-quaestor was expelled from the Senate for acting and dancing.<ref name=jones-107/> As [[eunuch]]s were popularly used as servants, Domitian punished people who castrated others<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ranke-Heinemann|first=Uta|title=Eunuchs for the Kingdom of Heaven: Women, Sexuality, and the Catholic Church|publisher=Doubleday|year=1990|location=New York|pages=46|translator-last=Heinegg|translator-first=Peter}}</ref> and wanted to ban the eunuchs themselves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Murray|first=Stephen O.|title=Homosexualities|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=2000|pages=299}}</ref> Subsequent emperors made similar prohibitions, but Domitian may have been the first to do so.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guilland|first=Rodolphe|date=1943|title=Les Eunuques dans l'Empire Byzantin: Étude de titulature et de prosopographie byzantines|url=https://people.well.com/user/aquarius/guilland-eunuques.htm|journal=Études Byzantines|volume=1|issue=1 |pages=197–238|doi=10.3406/rebyz.1943.907}}</ref> Despite his moralizing, Domitian had his own favorite eunuch boy, Earinus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Charles|first1=Michael B.|last2=Anagnostou-Laoutides|first2=Eva|date=2010|title=The Sexual Hypocrisy of Domitian: Suet., Dom. 8, 3|url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/antiq_0770-2817_2010_num_79_1_3772|journal=L'Antiquité Classique|volume=79|issue=1|pages=173–187|doi=10.3406/antiq.2010.3772}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Galbi|first=Douglas|date=12 April 2020|title=Earinus, Emperor Domitian, and laws against castration|url=https://www.purplemotes.net/2020/04/12/earinus-domitian-castration/|access-date=12 July 2020|website=purple motes|language=en-US}}</ref> who was commemorated by the contemporary court poets [[Martial]] and [[Statius]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2002 |first=John T. |last=Quinn |title=Earinus the Eunuch: Martial (from Book 9) and Statius (Silvae 3.4)|url=https://diotima-doctafemina.org/translations/latin/earinus-the-eunuch-martial-from-book-9-and-statius-silvae-3-4/|access-date=16 September 2021|website=[[Diotíma (website)|Diotíma]]}}</ref>

Domitian also heavily prosecuted corruption among public officials, removing jurors if they accepted bribes and rescinding legislation when a [[conflict of interest]] was suspected.<ref name=jones-107/> He ensured that [[libel]]lous writings, especially those directed against himself, were punishable by exile or death.<ref name=jones-107/> Actors were likewise regarded with suspicion.<ref>Grainger (2003), p. 54</ref> Consequently, he forbade [[mime]]s from appearing on stage in public. Philosophers did not fare much better. [[Epictetus]], who had set himself up in Rome as a professor of philosophy, remarked that philosophers were able to "look tyrants steadily in the face",<ref name="auto">Epictetus, translated by T.W.Rolleston, London: Walter Scott Ltd, undated, p. xviii</ref> and it was Domitian's decree of 94, expelling all philosophers from Rome, that caused Epictetus to shift his base to the recently founded Roman city of [[Nicopolis]], in [[Epirus (Roman province)|Epirus]], Greece, where he lived simply, worked safely and died of old age.<ref name="auto"/> In 87, [[Vestal Virgin]]s were found to have broken their sacred vows of lifelong public chastity. As the Vestals were regarded as daughters of the community, this offense essentially constituted [[incest]]. Accordingly, those found guilty of any such transgression were condemned to death, either by a manner of their choosing, or according to the ancient fashion, which dictated that Vestals should be [[Premature burial|buried alive]].<ref name=jones-101>Jones (1992), p. 101</ref>

[[File:Ahin Posh, coin of Domitian.jpg|thumb|Coin of Domitian, found in the Buddhist [[stupa]] of [[Ahin Posh]], dedicated under the [[Kushan Empire]] in 150–160, in modern [[Afghanistan]].]]

Foreign religions were tolerated insofar as they did not interfere with public order, or could be assimilated with the traditional Roman religion. The worship of Egyptian deities in particular flourished under the Flavian dynasty, to an extent not seen again until the reign of [[Commodus]]. Veneration of [[Serapis]] and [[Isis]], who were identified with Jupiter and Minerva respectively, was especially prominent.<ref name=jones-100/> Fourth century writings by [[Eusebius]] maintain that Jews and [[Christianity|Christians]] were heavily [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire#Domitian|persecuted]] toward the end of Domitian's reign.<ref>{{cite book | last = Eusebius of Caessarea | author-link = Eusebius of Caesarea | title = Church History | year = 325 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Smallwood | first = E.M. | title = 'Domitian's attitude towards the Jews and Judaism | journal = Classical Philology | volume = 51 | pages = 1–13 | year = 1956 | issue = 1 | doi = 10.1086/363978 | s2cid = 161356789 }}</ref> The [[Book of Revelation]] and [[First Epistle of Clement]] are thought by some to have been written during this period, the latter making mention of "sudden and repeated misfortunes", which are assumed to refer to persecutions under Domitian.<ref>{{cite book | last = Brown | first = Raymond E. | author-link = Raymond E. Brown | title = An Introduction to the New Testament | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1997 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0/page/805 805–809] | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-385-24767-2 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/introductiontone00brow_0/page/805 }}</ref> Although Jews were heavily taxed, no contemporary authors give specific details of trials or executions based on [[religious offense]]s other than those within the Roman religion.<ref>Jones (1992), p. 119</ref> Suetonius mentions having seen in his youth a nonagenarian being stripped by a [[Procurator (ancient Rome)|procurator]] to see if he was circumcised.<ref>[[Suetonius]], Life of Domitian, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#12 12]</ref>

===Opposition===

====Revolt of Governor Saturninus (89)====

[[Image:Bust of Domitian (loan from Capitoline Museums) - Glyptothek - Munich - Germany 2017 (2).jpg|thumb|left|180px|Domitian, [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome]]

On 1 January 89, the governor of [[Germania Superior]], [[Lucius Antonius Saturninus]], and his two legions at [[Mainz]], [[Legio XIV Gemina]] and [[Legio XXI Rapax]], revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people.<ref name=jones-144/> The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of [[appeasement]] toward Decebalus.<ref name=jones-145>Jones (1992), p. 145</ref> At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The [[Roman governors of Germania Inferior|governor of Germania Inferior]], [[Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus]], moved to the region at once, assisted by [[Titus Flavius Norbanus]], the procurator of [[Rhaetia]]. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard.<ref name=jones-146>Jones (1992), p. 146</ref>

By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid.<ref name=jones-146/> Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.<ref name=jones-149>Jones (1992), p. 149</ref> Lappius Maximus received the governorship of the [[province of Syria]], a second consulship in May 95, and finally a priesthood, which he still held in 102. Titus Flavius Norbanus may have been appointed to the prefecture of Egypt, but almost certainly became prefect of the Praetorian Guard by 94, with [[Titus Petronius Secundus]] as his colleague.<ref name=jones-148>Jones (1992), pp. 148–149</ref> Domitian opened the year following the revolt by sharing the consulship with [[Nerva|Marcus Cocceius Nerva]], suggesting the latter had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy, perhaps in a fashion similar to the one he played during the [[Pisonian conspiracy]] under Nero.<ref name="Grainger 2003, p. 30">Grainger (2003), p. 30</ref> Although little is known about the life and career of Nerva before his accession as Emperor in 96, he appears to have been a highly adaptable diplomat, surviving multiple regime changes and emerging as one of the Flavians' most trusted advisors.<ref name="Grainger 2003, p. 30"/> His consulship may therefore have been intended to emphasize the stability and status quo of the regime.<ref>Murison (2003), p. 150</ref> The revolt had been suppressed and the Empire returned to order.

====Relationship with the Senate====

[[File:Domitian Vaison-la-Romaine.jpg|180px|thumb|Domitian in military garb, wearing the [[muscle cuirass]] with [[Roman sculpture|decorative reliefs]], from [[Vaison-la-Romaine]], France]]

Since the fall of the [[Roman Republic|Republic]], the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the [[Principate]]. The Principate allowed the existence of a ''[[de facto]]'' dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Waters | first = K. H. | title = The Second Dynasty of Rome | journal = Phoenix | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | year = 1963 | jstor = 1086720 | doi = 10.2307/1086720 | pages = 198–218 [201] }}</ref> Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a ''de facto'' monarch.<ref name=jones-161>Jones (1992), p. 161</ref> Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. Domitian was not so subtle, often coming to the Senate as a triumpher and conqueror to show his disdain for them. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his [[autocracy]].<ref name=jones-161/> He disliked [[aristocracy|aristocrats]] and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate to reduce its control to an administrative one, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state.<ref name=jones-169>Jones (1992), p. 169</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=TimeTravelRome |date=16 March 2022 |title=Domitian: Misery of Absolutism and Splendor of Rome |url=https://www.timetravelrome.com/2022/03/16/domitian-misery-of-absolutism-and-splendor-of-rome/ |access-date=5 December 2022 |website=Time Travel Rome |language=en-US}}</ref>

The dislike was mutual. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion [[Damnatio memoriae|condemning his memory]] to oblivion.<ref name=jones-160>Jones (1992), p. 160</ref> Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant.<ref name=jones-161/> Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had concentrated consular power largely in the hands of the Flavian family, Domitian admitted a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, allowing them to head the official calendar by opening the year as an ordinary consul.<ref name=jones-163-8>Jones (1992), pp. 163–168</ref> Whether this was a genuine attempt to reconcile with hostile factions in the Senate cannot be ascertained. By offering the consulship to potential opponents, Domitian may have wanted to compromise these senators in the eyes of their supporters. When their conduct proved unsatisfactory, they were almost invariably brought to trial and exiled or executed, and their property was confiscated.<ref name=jones-169/>

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89.<ref name=tacitus-agricola-45>Tacitus, ''Agricola'' [[s:Agricola#45|45]]</ref><ref name=suetonius-domitian-10>Suetonius, Life of Domitian [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#10 10]</ref> At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed,<ref>For a full list of senatorial victims, see Jones (1992), pp. 182–188</ref> including Domitia Longina's former husband [[Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus]] and three of Domitian's own family members, [[Titus Flavius Sabinus (consul AD 82)|Titus Flavius Sabinus]], [[Titus Flavius Clemens (consul)|Titus Flavius Clemens]] and [[Marcus Arrecinus Clemens (consul)|Marcus Arrecinus Clemens]].<ref>M. Arrecinus Clemens may have been exiled instead of executed, see Jones (1992), p. 187</ref> Flavius Clemens was a cousin of Domitian, and the emperor had even designated Clemens' two young sons as his successors, calling them as "Vespasian" and "Domitian".<ref>[[Suetonius]] Life of Domitian, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Domitian*.html#15 15]</ref> Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion:

{{blockquote|He used to say that the lot of Emperors was most unfortunate, since when they discovered a conspiracy, no one believed them unless they had been murdered.<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''[[On the Life of the Caesars|De Vita Caesarum]]'', "Life of Domitian", 21</ref>}}

Jones compares the executions of Domitian to those under Emperor [[Claudius]] (41–54), noting that Claudius executed around 35 senators and 300 equestrians, and yet was still deified by the Senate and regarded as one of the good Emperors of history.<ref name=jones-192>Jones (1992), p. 192</ref> Domitian was apparently unable to gain support among the aristocracy, despite attempts to appease hostile factions with consular appointments. His autocratic style of government accentuated the Senate's loss of power, while his policy of treating patricians and even family members as equals to all Romans earned him their contempt.<ref name=jones-192/>