Editing David I of Scotland (section)

== England ==
{{main|England and King David I}}
[[File:Stepan Blois.jpg|thumb|upright|King Stephen drawn by [[Matthew Paris]]. David used Stephen's "[[usurpation]]" as his ''[[casus belli]]'' with England, even if it was not the actual reason.]]

David's relationship with England and the English crown in these years is usually interpreted in two ways. Firstly, his actions are understood in relation to his connections with the King of England. No historian is likely to deny that David's early career was largely manufactured by King Henry I of England. David was the latter's brother-in-law and "[[Mentorship|greatest protégé]]",<ref>Oram, ''Lordship of Galloway'', pp. 59, 63.</ref> one of Henry's "new men".<ref>Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest'', pp. 202–203.</ref> His hostility to Stephen can be interpreted as an effort to uphold the intended inheritance of Henry I, the succession of his daughter and David's niece [[Empress Matilda]]. David carried out his wars in her name, joined her when she arrived in England, and later knighted her son [[Henry II of England|Henry]].<ref>Stringer, ''Reign of Stephen'', pp. 28–37; Stringer, "State-Building in Twelfth-Century Britain", pp. 40–62; Green, "Anglo-Scottish Relations", pp. 53–72; Kapelle, ''Norman Conquest of the North'', p. 141ff; Blanchard, "Lothian and Beyond", pp. 23–46.</ref>

However, David's policy towards England can be interpreted in an additional way. David was the independence-loving king trying to build a "Scoto-Northumbrian" realm by seizing the most northerly parts of the English kingdom. In this perspective, David's support for Matilda is used as a pretext for land-grabbing. David's maternal descent from the [[House of Wessex]] and his son Henry's maternal descent from the English earls of Northumberland is thought to have further encouraged such a project, a project which came to an end only after Henry II ordered David's child successor [[Máel Coluim IV]] to hand over the most important of David's gains. It is clear that neither one of these interpretations can be taken without some weight being given to the other.<ref>Historians such as Stringer, Kapelle, Green and Blanchard (see previous note), emphasize David's role as an English magnate, while not denying his ambition; a middle line is perhaps Oram's supposed quest for a "Scoto-Northumbrian realm", ''David'', pp. 121–144, 167–189.</ref>

=== Usurpation of Stephen and First Treaty of Durham ===
Henry I had arranged his inheritance to pass to his daughter [[Empress Matilda]]. Instead, [[Stephen of England|Stephen]], younger brother of [[Theobald II, Count of Blois]], seized the throne.<ref>M. T. Clancy, ''England and its Rulers'', pp. 84–85; Robert Bartlett, ''England under the Norman and Angevin Kings'', p. 10.</ref> David had been the first layperson to take the oath to uphold the succession of Matilda in 1127, and when Stephen was crowned on 22 December 1135, David decided to make war.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 121–123.</ref>

Before December was over, David marched into northern England, and by the end of January, he had occupied the castles of [[Carlisle Castle|Carlisle]], [[Wark on Tyne|Wark]], [[Alnwick]], [[Norham]] and [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]]. By February David was at Durham, but an army led by King Stephen met him there. Rather than fight a pitched battle, a treaty was agreed whereby David would retain Carlisle, while David's son Henry was re-granted the title and half the lands of the earldom of Huntingdon, territory which had been confiscated during David's revolt. On Stephen's side, he received back the other castles; and while David would do no homage, Stephen was to receive the homage of Henry for both Carlisle and the other English territories. Stephen also gave the rather worthless but for David face-saving promise that if he ever chose to resurrect the defunct earldom of Northumberland, Henry would be given first consideration. Importantly, the issue of Matilda was not mentioned. However, the first Durham treaty quickly broke down after David took insult at the treatment of his son Henry at Stephen's court.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 122–125.</ref>

=== Renewal of war and Clitheroe ===
When the winter of 1136–1137 was over, David prepared again to invade England. The king of the Scots massed an army on [[Northumberland|Northumberland's border]], to which the English responded by gathering an army at [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]].<ref name="Crouch">[[David Crouch (historian)|David Crouch]], ''The Reign of King Stephen, 1135–1154'', Ed. Longman, 2000, p. 70.</ref> Once more pitched battle was avoided, and instead, a truce was agreed until December.<ref name="Crouch"/> When December fell, David demanded that Stephen hand over the whole of the old earldom of Northumberland. Stephen's refusal led to David's third invasion, this time in January 1138.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 126–127.</ref>

The army which invaded England in January and February 1138 shocked the English chroniclers. [[Richard of Hexham]] called it "an execrable army, savager than any race of heathen yielding honour to neither God nor man" and that it "harried the whole province and slaughtered everywhere folk of either sex, of every age and condition, destroying, pillaging and burning the vills, churches and houses".<ref>e.g. accounts of Richard of Hexham and Ailred of Rievaulx in A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 180 note 4.</ref> Several doubtful stories of cannibalism were recorded by chroniclers, and these same chroniclers paint a picture of routine enslavings, as well as killings of churchmen, women and infants.<ref>e.g. Richard of Hexham, [[John of Worcester]] and John of Hexham at A. O. Anderson, ''Scottish Annals'', p. 181.</ref>

By February King Stephen marched north to deal with David. The two armies avoided each other, and Stephen was soon on the road south. In the summer David split his army into two forces, sending William fitz Duncan to march into [[Lancashire]], where he harried [[Furness]] and [[Craven in the Domesday Book|Craven]]. On 10 June, William fitz Duncan met a force of knights and men-at-arms. A pitched battle took place, the [[battle of Clitheroe]], and the English army was routed.<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 132–133.</ref>

=== Battle of the Standard and Second Treaty of Durham ===
By later July 1138, the two Scottish armies had reunited in "St Cuthbert's land", that is, in the lands controlled by the [[Bishop of Durham]], on the far side of the [[river Tyne]]. Another English army had mustered to meet the Scots, this time led by [[William, Earl of Aumale]]. The victory at Clitheroe was probably what inspired David to risk battle. David's force, apparently 26,000 strong and several times larger than the English army, met the English on 22 August at Cowdon Moor near [[Northallerton]], [[North Yorkshire]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 136–137; A. O. Anderson, ''Early Sources'', p. 190.</ref>

[[File:David Seal (rev).JPG|right|thumb|Steel engraving and enhancement of the reverse side of the Great Seal of David I, a picture in the Anglo-Continental style depicting David as a warrior leader.]]

The [[Battle of the Standard]], as the encounter came to be called, was a defeat for the Scots. Afterwards, David and his surviving notables retired to Carlisle. Although the result was a defeat, it was not by any means decisive. David retained the bulk of his army and thus the power to go on the offensive again. The [[Siege of Wark (1138)|siege of Wark]], for instance, which had been going on since January, continued until it was captured in November. David continued to occupy [[Cumberland]] as well as much of [[Northumberland]].<ref name="Oram_2">Oram, ''David'', pp. 140–144.</ref>

On 26 September [[Alberic of Ostia|Cardinal Alberic]], [[Bishop of Ostia]], arrived at Carlisle where David had called together his kingdom's nobles, abbots and bishops. Alberic was there to investigate the controversy over the issue of the Bishop of Glasgow's allegiance or non-allegiance to the Archbishop of York. Alberic played the role of peace broker, and David agreed to a six-week truce which excluded the siege of Wark. On 9 April, David and Stephen's wife [[Matilda of Boulogne]] (daughter of [[Mary of Scotland, Countess of Boulogne|Mary of Scotland]], and so another niece of David) met each other at Durham and agreed a settlement. David's son Henry was given the earldom of Northumberland and was restored to the earldom of Huntingdon and lordship of [[Doncaster]]; David himself was allowed to keep Carlisle and Cumberland. King Stephen was to retain possession of the strategically vital castles of [[Bamburgh]] and Newcastle. This effectively fulfilled all of David's war aims.<ref name="Oram_2"/>

=== Arrival of Matilda and the renewal of conflict ===
[[File:Empress matilda.jpg|thumb|Matilda, former empress in [[Holy Roman Empire]]]]

The settlement with Stephen was not set to last long. The arrival in England of [[Empress Matilda]] gave David an opportunity to renew the conflict with Stephen. In either May or June, David travelled to the south of England and entered Matilda's company; he was present for her expected coronation at [[Westminster Abbey]], though this never took place. David was there until September when the Empress found herself surrounded at [[Rout of Winchester|Winchester]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', pp. 170–172.</ref>

This civil war, or "[[the Anarchy]]" as it was later called, enabled David to strengthen his own position in northern England. While David consolidated his hold on his own and his son's newly acquired lands, he also sought to expand his influence. The castles at [[The Castle, Newcastle|Newcastle]] and [[Bamburgh Castle|Bamburgh]] were again brought under his control, and he attained dominion over all of England north-west of the [[river Ribble]] and [[Pennines]] while holding the north-east as far south as the [[river Tyne]], on the borders of the core territory of the bishopric of [[Durham, England|Durham]]. While his son brought all the senior barons of [[Northumberland]] into his entourage, David rebuilt the [[Carlisle Castle|fortress of Carlisle]]. Carlisle quickly replaced [[Roxburgh]] as his favoured residence. David's acquisition of the mines at [[Alston, Cumbria|Alston]] on the [[South Tyne]] enabled him to begin minting the [[Kingdom of Scotland]]'s first silver coinage. David, meanwhile, issued charters to [[Shrewsbury Abbey]] in respect to their lands in [[Lancashire]].<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 179.</ref>

=== Bishopric of Durham and the Archbishopric of York ===
However, David's successes were in many ways balanced by his failures. David's greatest disappointment during this time was his inability to ensure control of the [[Bishopric of Durham]] and the [[Archbishopric of York]]. David had attempted to appoint his chancellor, [[William Comyn, Lord of Badenoch|William Comyn]], to the bishopric of Durham, which had been vacant since the death of Bishop [[Geoffrey Rufus]] in 1140. Between 1141 and 1143, Comyn was the ''de facto'' bishop, and had control of the bishop's castle; but he was resented by the [[Chapter (religion)|chapter]]. Despite controlling the town of Durham, David's only hope of ensuring his election and consecration was gaining the support of the [[List of papal legates to England|papal legate]], [[Henry of Blois]], [[Bishop of Winchester]] and brother of King Stephen. Despite obtaining the support of Empress Matilda, David was unsuccessful and had given up by the time [[William of St. Barbara]] was elected to the see in 1143.<ref>For David's struggle for control over Durham see Oram, ''David'', pp. 169–175.</ref>

David also attempted to interfere in the succession to the archbishopric of York. [[William of York|William FitzHerbert]], nephew of King Stephen, found his position undermined by the collapsing political fortune of Stephen in the north of England and was deposed by the Pope. David used his [[Cistercian]] connections to build a bond with [[Henry Murdac]], the new archbishop. Despite the support of [[Pope Eugene III]], supporters of King Stephen and William FitzHerbert managed to prevent Henry taking up his post at York. In 1149, Henry sought the support of David. David seized on the opportunity to bring the archdiocese under his control and marched on the city. However, Stephen's supporters became aware of David's intentions and informed King Stephen. Stephen therefore marched to the city and installed a new garrison. David decided not to risk such an engagement and withdrew.<ref>For David's struggle for control over York, see pp. 186–189.</ref> Richard Oram has conjectured that David's ultimate aim was to bring the whole of the ancient [[Kingdom of Northumbria]] into his dominion. For Oram, this event was the turning point, "the chance to radically redraw the political map of the [[British Isles]] [had been] lost forever".<ref>Oram, ''David'', p. 189.</ref>