Editing Cooking (section)

==Health and safety==

=== Indoor air pollution ===
{{Main|Household air pollution}}
As of 2021, over 2.6 billion people cook using open fires or inefficient stoves using [[kerosene]], [[biomass]], and [[coal]] as fuel.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Household air pollution |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-01-16 |title=Polluting cooking methods, used by billions of people around the world, remain a threat to women's health |url=https://www.equaltimes.org/polluting-cooking-methods-used-by |access-date=2023-12-08 |website=Equal Times |language=en}}</ref> These cooking practices use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household [[air pollution]], causing 3.8 million premature deaths annually. Of these deaths, 27% are from [[pneumonia]], 27% from [[ischaemic heart disease]], 20% from [[chronic obstructive pulmonary disease]], 18% from [[stroke]], and 8% from [[lung cancer]]. Women and young children are disproportionately affected, since they spend the most time near the hearth.<ref name="who-airpollution">{{cite web |title=Household air pollution and health |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/household-air-pollution-and-health |publisher=World Health Organization |access-date=12 April 2022 |date=22 September 2021}}</ref>

=== Security while cooking ===
Hazards while cooking can include:
* Unseen slippery surfaces (such as from oil stains, water droplets, or items that have fallen on the floor)
* Cuts; about a third of the US's estimated annual 400,000 knife injuries are kitchen-related.<ref>{{Cite web|title=A Guide to Keeping Safe While Cooking|url=https://staysafe.org/safety/cooking/|access-date=2021-07-03|website=StaySafe.org|language=en-US}}</ref>
* Burns or fires

To prevent those injuries there are protections such as cooking clothing, anti-slip shoes, fire extinguisher and more.

===Food safety===
{{Main|Food safety}}
Cooking can prevent many [[foodborne illness]]es that would otherwise occur if raw food is consumed. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as [[bacteria]] and viruses, as well as various parasites such as [[tapeworm]]s and ''[[Toxoplasma gondii]]''. Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as [[Escherichia coli O157:H7|pathogenic strains]] of ''[[Escherichia coli]]'', ''[[Salmonella typhimurium]]'' and ''[[Campylobacter]]'', viruses such as [[norovirus]]es, and [[protozoa]] such as ''[[Entamoeba histolytica]]''. Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done [[Doneness|rare]], and unboiled water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/digestive-diseases/foodborne-illnesses|title= Foodborne Illnesses |work=National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases }}</ref>

The [[Sterilization (microbiology)|sterilizing]] effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some [[food spoilage]] bacteria such as ''[[Clostridium botulinum]]'' or ''[[Bacillus cereus]]'' can form spores that survive cooking or boiling, which then [[germination|germinate]] and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922234817/http://www.foodstandards.gov.au/_srcfiles/complete_safefood.pdf|url-status=dead |title=Safe Food Australia – A Guide to the Food Safety Standards|archivedate=22 September 2010}}</ref>

Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw [[cereal]] grains are hard to digest, while [[kidney bean]]s are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of [[phytohaemagglutinin]], which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at {{convert|100|C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Noah ND, Bender AE, Reaidi GB, Gilbert RJ |title=News, Notes, And Epidemiology |journal=Br Med J |volume=281 |issue=6234 |pages=236–237 |date=July 1980 |pmid=7407532 |doi=10.1136/bmj.281.6234.235 |pmc=1713670}}</ref>

Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the "[[Danger zone (food safety)|Danger zone]]" temperature range from {{convert|40|to|140|F|C}}; therefore, food should not be stored in this temperature range. [[Washing of hands]] and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fsis.usda.gov/wps/wcm/connect/d468f3d9-fb6c-4109-88d7-2931f7132098/Barbecue_Food_Safety.pdf?MOD=AJPERES|title=Grilling and Food Safety|publisher =USDA|access-date=30 January 2019|date=June 2017}}</ref> are good practices in food preparation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fsis.usda.gov/Factsheets/Basics_for_Handling_Food_Safely/index.asp |title=Basics for Handling Food Safely |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040928210429/http://www.fsis.usda.gov/factsheets/Basics_for_Handling_Food_Safely/index.asp |archive-date=28 September 2004 }}</ref> Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/health/foodsafety/az1076.html|title=Cutting Boards (Plastic Versus Wood)|publisher=Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, the University of Arizona|work=Food Safety, Preparation and Storage Tips|year=1998|access-date=21 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060613074257/http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/health/foodsafety/az1076.html |archive-date=13 June 2006}}</ref><ref name="ReluctantGourmet">{{cite web|url=http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/cutting_board.htm|title=Cutting Boards – wood or plastic?|work=ReluctantGourmet.com|access-date=21 June 2006|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060702142255/http://www.reluctantgourmet.com/cutting_board.htm|archive-date=2 July 2006}}</ref> Washing and [[disinfecting]] cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.<ref name="ReluctantGourmet"/>

===Effects on nutritional content of food===
{{See also|Raw foodism}}
[[File:Rawtomatopasta1.jpg|thumb|A raw [[tomato sauce]] with [[olive]]s, [[celery]], [[spinach]] and [[walnut]]s on [[zucchini]] noodles.]]

Proponents of [[raw foodism]] argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing [[vitamin C]], the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|title=Potato, nutrition and diet – International Year of the Potato 2008|access-date=14 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105095547/http://www.potato2008.org/en/potato/factsheets.html|archive-date=5 November 2007|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, research has shown that in the specific case of [[carotenoid]]s a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.<ref name="news.bbc.co.uk"/>

[[Sulforaphane]], a [[glucosinolate]] breakdown product, is present in vegetables such as [[broccoli]], and is mostly destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Jin | first1=Y. | last2=Wang | first2=M. | last3=Rosen | first3=R. T. | last4=Ho | first4=C. T. | title=Thermal Degradation of Sulforaphane in Aqueous Solution | doi=10.1021/jf990082e | journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume=47 | issue=8 | pages=3121–3123 | year=1999 | pmid= 10552618| bibcode=1999JAFC...47.3121J }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bongoni|first1=R|last2=Verkerk|first2=R|last3=Steenbekkers|first3=B|last4=Dekker| last5=Stieger|first4=M|title= Evaluation of Different Cooking Conditions on Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to Improve the Nutritional Value and Consumer Acceptance.|journal= Plant Foods for Human Nutrition|doi=10.1007/s11130-014-0420-2|volume=69|issue=3|pages=228–234|pmid=24853375|year=2014|s2cid=35228794}}</ref> Although there has been some basic research on how [[sulforaphane]] might exert beneficial effects in vivo, there is no high-quality evidence for its efficacy against human diseases.

The [[United States Department of Agriculture]] has studied retention data for 16 vitamins, 8 minerals, and alcohol for approximately 290 foods across various cooking methods.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400525/Data/retn/retn06.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles/Place/80400525/Data/retn/retn06.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6|date=Dec 2007|website=USDA|publisher=USDA.}}</ref>

===Carcinogens and AGEs===
[[File:BBQ Food.jpg|thumb|right|[[Chicken (food)|Chicken]], [[pork]] and [[bacon]]-wrapped [[Maize|corn]] cooking in a [[barbecue]] smoker. Studies show that barbecuing and smoking generate carcinogens.]]
In a human epidemiological analysis by [[Richard Doll]] and [[Richard Peto]] in 1981, diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1=Doll | first1=R.
| last2=Peto | first2=R.
| title=The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today
| journal=Journal of the National Cancer Institute
| volume =66
| issue=6
| pages=1191–1308
| year =1981
| pmid =7017215
 | doi=10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192
}}</ref> Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer |author=Willett WC |journal=Environ Health Perspect |year= 1995 |issue=Suppl 8 |pages=165–170 |pmid=8741778 |pmc=1518978 |doi=10.1289/ehp.95103s8165 |volume=103 |bibcode=1995EnvHP.103S.165W }}</ref> Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens">{{cite book |title=Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet |url=https://archive.org/details/carcinogensantic0000nati |url-access=registration |publisher=National Academy Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-309-05391-4 }}</ref>

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates [[heterocyclic amine]]s (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the [[National Cancer Institute]] found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.<ref name=amines>{{cite web |url=http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Risk/heterocyclic-amines |title=Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats |publisher=[[National Cancer Institute]] |year=2018 }}</ref> While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below {{convert|212|F}} creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, [[microwaving]] meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.<ref name=amines/> [[Nitrosamine]]s are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. [[Vitamin C|Ascorbate]], which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.<ref name="carcinogens and anticarcinogens"/><ref>{{cite journal |journal=Cancer Res. |year=1983 |volume=43 |issue=5 Suppl|pages=2435s–2440s |title=Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food |author=Scanlan RA. |pmid= 6831466 }}</ref>

Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of [[acrylamide]]. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; [[Cancer Research UK]] categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".<ref name=cruk>{{cite web |url=https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |publisher=Cancer Research UK |title=Can eating burnt foods cause cancer? |date=15 October 2021 |access-date=2 October 2022 |archive-date=9 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109155615/https://www.cancerresearchuk.org/about-cancer/causes-of-cancer/cancer-myths/can-eating-burnt-foods-cause-cancer |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Cooking food at high temperature may create [[advanced glycation end-product]]s (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in a number of diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in ageing.  AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via [[Maillard reaction]]. These compounds impart colors, tastes and smells that are specific to these food, but may also be deleterious to health.<ref>{{cite journal |journal= Am J Lifestyle Med|date= May 2017 |volume=13|issue=4|pages=384–404| doi= 10.1177/1559827617708991|title=Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification |first1=Chandan |last1=Prasad |first2= Kathleen E |last2=Davis|first3= Victorine |last3=Imrhan |first4= Shanil|last4= Juma |first5= Parakat |last5=Vijayagopal |pmid= 31285723 |pmc= 6600625 }}</ref> Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or moist heat, reducing the cooking times and temperatures, as well as by first marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar.<ref>{{cite journal |journal=J Am Diet Assoc|date= June 2010 |volume=110|issue=6|pages=911–16.e12| doi= 10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018|title=Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet|first1=Jaime |last1=Uribarri |first2= Sandra |last2=Woodruff|first3= Susan|last3= Goodman|first4= Weijing |last4=Cai|first5= Xue |last5=Chen|first6= Renata |last6=Pyzik|first7= Angie |last7=Yong|first8= Gary E |last8=Striker|first9= Helen|last9= Vlassara|pmid= 20497781 |pmc= 3704564 }}</ref>