Editing Constantine the Great (section)

==== War against Maxentius ====
{{Campaignbox Constantine Wars}}
By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 31–35; Eusebius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 8.16; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 43; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96, 316.</ref> His final act survives: a letter to provincials posted in ''Nicomedia'' on 30 April 311, proclaiming an end to the persecutions, and the resumption of religious toleration.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 34; Eusebius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 8.17; Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 304; Jones, 66.</ref>

Eusebius maintains "divine providence [...] took action against the perpetrator of these crimes" and gives a graphic account of Galerius' demise:

"Without warning suppurative inflammation broke out round the middle of his genitals, then a deep-seated fistula ulcer; these ate their way incurably into his innermost bowels. From them came a teeming indescribable mass of worms, and a sickening smell was given off, for the whole of his hulking body, thanks to over eating, had been transformed even before his illness into a huge lump of flabby fat, which then decomposed and presented those who came near it with a revolting and horrifying sight."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Eusebius |title=The History of the Church |publisher=Penguin Classics |year=1965 |isbn=0140445358 |pages=278}}</ref>

Galerius died soon after the edict's proclamation,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 39; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 43–44; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; Odahl, 95–96.</ref> destroying what little remained of the Tetrarchy.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96.</ref> Maximinus mobilised against Licinius and seized [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. A hasty peace was signed on a boat in the middle of the [[Bosporus|Bosphorus]].<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 39–40; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 44; Odahl, 96.</ref> While Constantine toured Britain and Gaul, Maxentius prepared for war.<ref>Odahl, 96.</ref> He fortified northern Italy and strengthened his support in the Christian community by allowing it to elect [[Pope Eusebius|Eusebius]] as [[diocese of Rome|bishop of Rome]].<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 38; Odahl, 96.</ref>[[File:Dame-Schmuckkasten-Trier.jpg|thumb|left|A Roman fresco in [[Trier]], Germany, possibly depicting [[Flavia Julia Constantia|Constantia]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hillner |first=Julia |date=2017 |title=Constantia |chapter=Constantia, half-sister of Constantine and wife of Licinius |url=https://oxfordre.com/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-8065 |series=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.8065 |isbn=978-0-19-938113-5}}</ref>]]
Maxentius' rule was nevertheless insecure. His early support dissolved in the wake of heightened tax rates and depressed trade; riots broke out in Rome and [[Carthage]];<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 37; Curran, 66; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 68; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 62.</ref> and [[Domitius Alexander]] was able to briefly usurp his authority in Africa.<ref name="leohak">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 37.</ref> By 312, he was a man barely tolerated, not one actively supported,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 37–39.</ref> even among Christian Italians.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 38–39; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 62.</ref> In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilised against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder".<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 40; Curran, 66.</ref> To prevent Maxentius from forming an alliance against him with Licinius,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41.</ref> Constantine forged his own alliance with Licinius over the winter of 311–312 and offered him his sister [[Flavia Julia Constantia|Constantia]] in marriage. Maximinus considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for a military support, which Maxentius accepted.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Elliott, ''Christianity of Constantine'', 44–45; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; Odahl, 96.</ref> According to Eusebius, inter-regional travel became impossible, and there was military buildup everywhere. There was "not a place where people were not expecting the onset of hostilities every day".<ref>Eusebius, ''Historia Ecclesiastica'' 8.15.1–2, qtd. and tr. in MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 65.</ref>

[[File:Battle of Constantine and Maxentius (detail-of-fresco-in-Vatican-Stanze) c1650 by Lazzaro Baldi after Giulio Romano at the University of Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|''Battle of Constantine and Maxentius'' (detail of part of a fresco by [[Giulio Romano (painter)|Giulio Romano]] in the Hall of Constantine in the [[Raphael Rooms]] in the [[Vatican Museums|Vatican]]), copy c. 1650 by [[Lazzaro Baldi]], now at the University of Edinburgh]]

Constantine's advisers and generals cautioned against preemptive attack on Maxentius;<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71.</ref> even his soothsayers recommended against it, stating that the sacrifices had produced unfavourable omens.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9)2.5; Curran, 67.</ref> Constantine, with a spirit that left a deep impression on his followers, inspiring some to believe that he had some form of supernatural guidance,<ref>Curran, 67.</ref> ignored all these cautions.<ref>MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 70–71.</ref> Early in the spring of 312,<ref name="esyyqc">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Odahl, 101.</ref> Constantine crossed the [[Cottian Alps]] with a quarter of his army, a force numbering about 40,000.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9)5.1–3; Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71; Odahl, 101.</ref> The first town his army encountered was ''Segusium'' ([[Susa, Piedmont|Susa]], Italy), a heavily fortified town that shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his men to set fire to its gates and scale its walls. He took the town quickly. Constantine ordered his troops not to loot the town and advanced into northern Italy.<ref name="esyyqc" />

At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum ([[Turin]], Italy), Constantine met a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Jones, 70; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71; Odahl, 101–02.</ref> In the ensuing [[Battle of Turin (312)|Battle of Turin]] Constantine's army encircled Maxentius' cavalry, [[Flanking maneuver|flanked]] them with his own cavalry, and dismounted them with blows from his soldiers' iron-tipped clubs. Constantine's armies emerged victorious.<ref>''Panegyrici Latini'' 12(9)5–6; 4(10)21–24; Jones, 70–71; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71; Odahl, 102, 317–18.</ref> Turin refused to give refuge to Maxentius' retreating forces, opening its gates to Constantine instead.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41; Jones, 71; Odahl, 102.</ref> Other cities of the north Italian plain sent Constantine embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. Constantine rested his army in Milan until mid-summer 312, when he moved on to Brixia ([[Brescia]]).<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 41–42; Odahl, 103.</ref>

Brescia's army was easily dispersed,<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Jones, 71; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71; Odahl, 103.</ref> and Constantine quickly advanced to [[Verona]] where a large Maxentian force was camped.<ref>Jones, 71; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71; Odahl, 103.</ref> [[Ruricius Pompeianus]], general of the Veronese forces and Maxentius' praetorian prefect,<ref>Jones, 71; Odahl, 103.</ref> was in a strong defensive position since the town was surrounded on three sides by the [[Adige]]. Constantine sent a small force north of the town in an attempt to cross the river unnoticed. Ruricius sent a large detachment to counter Constantine's expeditionary force but was defeated. Constantine's forces successfully surrounded the town and laid siege.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103.</ref> Ruricius gave Constantine the slip and returned with a larger force to oppose Constantine. Constantine refused to let up on the siege and sent only a small force to oppose him. In the desperately fought [[Battle of Verona (312)|encounter]] that followed, Ruricius was killed and his army destroyed.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 103–04.</ref> Verona surrendered soon afterwards, followed by [[Aquileia]],<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Jones, 71; Lenski, "Reign of Constantine" (CC), 69; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71; Odahl, 104.</ref> Mutina ([[Modena]]),<ref>Jones, 71; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71.</ref> and [[Ravenna]].<ref>MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 71.</ref> The road to Rome was now wide open to Constantine.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71.</ref>

[[File:Ponte Milvio-side view-antmoose.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|right|The Milvian Bridge ([[Ponte Milvio]]) over the [[Tiber|River Tiber]], north of Rome, where Constantine and Maxentius fought in the [[Battle of the Milvian Bridge]]]]
Maxentius prepared for the same type of war he had waged against Severus and Galerius: he occupied Rome and prepared for a siege.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Jones, 71; Odahl, 105.</ref> He still controlled Rome's [[Praetorian Guard]], was well-stocked with African grain, and was surrounded on all sides by the seemingly impregnable [[Aurelian Walls]]. He ordered all bridges across the [[Tiber]] cut, reportedly on the counsel of the gods,<ref>Jones, 71.</ref> and left the rest of central Italy undefended; Constantine secured that region's support without challenge.<ref>Odahl, 104.</ref> Constantine progressed slowly<ref name="BC42">Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42.</ref> along the ''[[Via Flaminia]]'',<ref>MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 72; Odahl, 107.</ref> allowing the weakness of Maxentius to draw his regime further into turmoil.<ref name="BC42" /> Maxentius' support continued to weaken: at chariot races on 27 October, the crowd openly taunted Maxentius, shouting that Constantine was invincible.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42; Curran, 67; Jones, 71–72; Odahl, 107–8.</ref> Maxentius, no longer certain that he would emerge from a siege victorious, built a temporary boat bridge across the Tiber in preparation for a field battle against Constantine.<ref>Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 42–43; MacMullen, ''Constantine'', 78; Odahl, 108.</ref> On 28 October 312, the sixth anniversary of his reign, he approached the keepers of the [[Sibylline Books]] for guidance. The keepers prophesied that, on that very day, "the enemy of the Romans" would die. Maxentius advanced north to meet Constantine in battle.<ref>Lactantius, ''De Mortibus Persecutorum'' 44.8; Barnes, ''Constantine and Eusebius'', 43; Curran, 67; Jones, 72; Odahl, 108.</ref>