Editing Charles de Gaulle (section)

== Between the wars ==
=== Early 1920s: Poland and staff college ===
[[File:Charles de Gaulle en Pologne.jpg|thumb|left|De Gaulle during the mission to Poland, c. 1920]]
After the armistice, de Gaulle served with the staff of the [[French Military Mission to Poland]] as an instructor of Poland's infantry during its [[Polish-Soviet War|war with communist Russia]] (1919–1921). He distinguished himself in operations near the [[Zbrucz|River Zbrucz]], with the rank of major in the Polish army, and won Poland's highest military decoration, the [[Virtuti Militari]].<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|71–74}}
[[File:Charles de Gaulle vers 1922-1924.jpg|thumb|right|De Gaulle at the [[École supérieure de guerre]], between 1922 and 1924]]

De Gaulle returned to France, where he became a lecturer in military history at Saint-Cyr.<ref>Lacouture 1991, p. 64</ref> He studied at the ''[[École de Guerre]]'' (staff college) from November 1922 to October 1924. Here he clashed with his instructor Colonel Moyrand by arguing for tactics based on circumstances rather than doctrine, and after an exercise in which he had played the role of commander, he refused to answer a question about supplies, replying ''"de minimis non curat [[praetor]]"'' (roughly: "a leader does not concern himself with trivia") before ordering the responsible officer to answer Moyrand. 

He obtained respectable, but not outstanding grades on many of his assessments. Moyrand wrote in his final report that he was "an intelligent, cultured and serious-minded officer; has brilliance and talent" but criticised him for not deriving as much benefit from the course as he should have, and for his arrogance: his "excessive self-confidence", his harsh dismissal of the views of others "and his attitude of a King in exile". Having entered 33rd out of 129, he graduated in 52nd place, with a grade of ''assez bien'' ("good enough"). He was posted to [[Mainz]] to help supervise supplies of food and equipment for the [[Occupation of the Rhineland|French Army of Occupation]].<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 66–71, 213–5</ref><ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|82}}
De Gaulle's book ''La Discorde chez l'ennemi'' had appeared in March 1924. In March 1925 he published an essay on the use of tactics according to circumstances, a deliberate defiance of Moyrand.<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 71–2</ref>

=== Mid-1920s: ghostwriter for Pétain ===
De Gaulle's career was saved by Pétain, who arranged for his staff college grade to be amended to ''bien'' ("good"—but not the "excellent" needed for a general staff posting).<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|82–83}} From 1 July 1925 he worked for Pétain (as part of the ''[[Maison Pétain]]''), largely as a "pen officer" ([[ghostwriter]]).<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p77-86">Lacouture 1991, pp. 77–86</ref> De Gaulle disapproved of Pétain's decision to take command in Morocco in 1925 (he was later known to remark that "Marshal Pétain was a great man. He died in 1925, but he did not know it") and of what he saw as the lust for public adulation of Pétain and his wife. In 1925 de Gaulle began to cultivate [[Joseph Paul-Boncour]], his first [[Political patronage|political patron]].<ref>Lacouture 1991, p. 80</ref> On 1 December 1925 he published an essay on the "Historical Role of French Fortresses". This was a popular topic because of the [[Maginot Line]] which was then being planned, but he argued that the aim of fortresses should be to weaken the enemy, not to economise on defence.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p77-86" />

Friction arose between de Gaulle and Pétain over ''Le Soldat'', a history of the French soldier which he had ghost-written and for which he wanted greater writing credit. He had written mainly historical material, but Pétain wanted to add a final chapter of his own thoughts. There was at least one stormy meeting late in 1926 after which de Gaulle was seen to emerge, white with anger, from Pétain's office.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p84-7">Lacouture 1991, pp. 84–7</ref> In October 1926 he returned to his duties with the Headquarters of the Army of the Rhine.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1890-1940-la-genese/un-officier-non-conformiste/reperes/chronologie-1921-1939.php|title=Chronologie 1921–1939|publisher=charles-de-gaulle.org|access-date=14 January 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303234832/http://www.charles-de-gaulle.org/pages/l-homme/dossiers-thematiques/1890-1940-la-genese/un-officier-non-conformiste/reperes/chronologie-1921-1939.php|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref>

De Gaulle had sworn that he would never return to the ''École de Guerre'' except as commandant, but at Pétain's invitation, and introduced to the stage by his patron, he delivered three lectures there in April 1927: "Leadership in Wartime", "Character", and "Prestige". These later formed the basis for his book ''The Edge of the Sword'' (1932).<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p88">Lacouture 1991, p. 88</ref>

=== Late-1920s: Trier and Beirut ===
After spending twelve years as a captain, a normal period, de Gaulle was promoted to ''[[Ranks in the French Army#Commandant|commandant]]'' (major) on 25 September 1927.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p88" /> In November 1927 he began a two-year posting as commanding officer of the 19th ''[[Chasseur#Chasseurs à pied|chasseurs à pied]]'' (a [[battalion]] of élite light infantry) with the occupation forces at [[Trier]].<ref>Lacouture 1991, p. 84</ref><ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|94}}

De Gaulle trained his men hard (a river crossing exercise of the freezing [[Moselle River]] at night was vetoed by his commanding general). He imprisoned a soldier for appealing to his [[Member of Parliament (France)|deputy]] for a transfer to a cushier unit, and when investigated initially tried to invoke his status as a member of the ''Maison Pétain'', eventually appealing to Pétain to protect himself from a reprimand for interfering with the soldier's political rights. An observer wrote of de Gaulle at this time that although he encouraged young officers, "his ego...glowed from far off". In the winter of 1928–1929, thirty soldiers ("not counting [[Annam (French protectorate)|Annamese]]") died from so-called "German flu", seven of them from de Gaulle's battalion. After an investigation, he was singled out for praise in the ensuing parliamentary debate as an exceptionally capable commanding officer, and mention of how he had worn a mourning band for a private soldier who was an orphan earned praise from the Prime Minister [[Raymond Poincaré]].<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 90–2</ref>

The breach between de Gaulle and Pétain over the ghost-writing of ''Le Soldat'' had deepened in 1928. Pétain brought in a new ghostwriter, Colonel Audet, who was unwilling to take on the job and wrote to de Gaulle in some embarrassment to take over the project. Pétain was quite friendly about the matter but did not publish the book.<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 84–7, 213–5</ref> In 1929 Pétain did not use de Gaulle's draft text for his eulogy for the late [[Ferdinand Foch]], whose seat at the ''[[Académie Française]]'' he was assuming.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p84-7" />

The Allied occupation of the Rhineland was ending, and de Gaulle's battalion was due to be disbanded, although the decision was later rescinded after he had moved to his next posting. De Gaulle wanted a teaching post at the ''École de Guerre'' in 1929.<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 92–3</ref> There was apparently a threat of mass resignation of the faculty were he appointed. There was talk of a posting to Corsica or North Africa, but on Pétain's advice he accepted a two-year posting to [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|Lebanon and Syria]].<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|93–94}} In Beirut he was chief of the 3rd Bureau (military operations) of General Louis-Paul-Gaston de Bigault du Granrut, who wrote him a glowing reference recommending him for high command.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, pp99-100">Lacouture 1991, pp. 99–100</ref>

=== 1930s: staff officer ===
In the spring of 1931, as his posting in Beirut drew to a close, de Gaulle once again asked Pétain for a posting to the ''École de Guerre''. Pétain tried to obtain an appointment for him as Professor of History there, but once again the faculty would not have him. Instead de Gaulle, drawing on plans he had drawn up in 1928 for reform of that institution, asked Pétain to create a special post for him which would enable him to lecture on "the Conduct of War" both to the ''École de Guerre'' and to the ''Centre des Hautes Études Militaires'' (CHEM – a senior staff college for generals, known as the "school for marshals"), to civilians at the ''[[École Normale Supérieure]]'', and to civil servants.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p99, p118">Lacouture 1991, pp. 99, 118</ref>

Pétain instead advised him to apply for a posting to the ''Secrétariat Général du Conseil Supérieur de la Défense Nationale'' (SGDN – General Secretariat of the Supreme War Council) in Paris. Pétain promised to lobby for the appointment, which he thought would be good experience for him. De Gaulle was posted to SGDN in November 1931, initially as a "drafting officer".<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p99, p118" /><ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|94}}

He was promoted to lieutenant-colonel in December 1932 and appointed Head of the Third Section (operations). His service at SGDN gave him six years' experience of the interface between army planning and government, enabling him to take on ministerial responsibilities in 1940.<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|97}}<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 105, 119 – Lacouture gives the date of this promotion both as December 1932 (the date favoured by most accounts) and December 1933</ref>

After studying arrangements in the US, Italy, and Belgium, de Gaulle drafted a bill for the organisation of the country in wartime. He made a presentation about his bill to the CHEM. The bill passed the Chamber of Deputies but failed in the Senate.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p125">Lacouture 1991, p. 125</ref>

=== Early 1930s: proponent of armoured warfare ===
Unlike Pétain, de Gaulle believed in the use of tanks and rapid maneuvers rather than trench warfare.<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|108}} De Gaulle became a disciple of Émile Mayer, a retired lieutenant-colonel (his career had been damaged by the [[Dreyfus Affair]]) and military thinker. Mayer thought that although wars were still bound to happen, it was "obsolete" for civilised countries to threaten or wage war on one another. He had a low opinion of French generals, and was a critic of the [[Maginot Line]] and a proponent of mechanised warfare. Lacouture suggests that Mayer focused de Gaulle's thoughts away from his obsession with the mystique of the strong leader (''Le Fil d'Epée'': 1932) and back to loyalty to Republican institutions and military reform.<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 114–7, 131, 154.</ref>

In 1934 de Gaulle wrote ''Vers l'Armée de Métier'' (''Towards a Professional Army''). He proposed mechanization of the infantry, with stress on an élite force of 100,000 men and 3,000 tanks. The book imagined tanks driving around the country like cavalry. De Gaulle's mentor Emile Mayer was somewhat more prophetic than he was about the future importance of air power on the battlefield. Such an army would both compensate for France's population shortage, and be an efficient tool to enforce international law, particularly the [[Treaty of Versailles]]. He also thought it would be a precursor to a deeper national reorganisation, and wrote that "a master has to make his appearance [...] whose orders cannot be challenged – a man upheld by public opinion".<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 133–5.</ref>

Only 700 copies were sold in France; the claim that thousands of copies were sold in Germany<ref name="time19590105">''See, e.g.,'' {{cite news|title=Charles de Gaulle|url=http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1958.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070112102142/http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1958.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 January 2007|newspaper=Time|date=5 January 1959}}</ref> is thought to be an exaggeration. De Gaulle used the book to widen his contacts among journalists, notably with André Pironneau, editor of ''[[L'Écho de Paris]]''. The book attracted praise across the political spectrum, apart from the hard left who were committed to the Republican ideal of a citizen army.<ref>Lacouture 1991, p. 136.</ref> De Gaulle's views attracted the attention of the maverick politician [[Paul Reynaud]], to whom he wrote frequently, sometimes in obsequious terms. Reynaud first invited him to meet him on 5 December 1934.<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 139–146.</ref>

De Gaulle was deeply focused on his career at this time. There is no evidence that he was tempted by fascism, and there is little evidence of his views either on domestic upheavals in [[6 February 1934 crisis|1934]] and [[1936 French legislative election|1936]] or the many foreign policy crises of the decade.<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 127–128, 143–144.</ref> He approved of the rearmament drive which the [[Popular Front (France)|Popular Front]] government began in 1936, although French military doctrine remained that tanks should be used in penny packets for infantry support (ironically, in 1940 it would be German panzer units that would be used in a manner similar to what de Gaulle had advocated).<ref>Lacouture 1991, p. 144.</ref> A rare insight into de Gaulle's political views is a letter to his mother warning that war with Germany was inevitable and reassuring her that [[Pierre Laval]]'s [[Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assistance|pact with the USSR in 1935]] was for the best, likening it to [[Francis I of France|Francis I]]'s [[Franco-Ottoman alliance|alliance with the Turks]] against [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Charles V]].<ref>Lacouture 1991, p. 127.</ref>

=== Late 1930s: tank regiment ===
From April 1936, whilst still in his staff position at SGDN, de Gaulle was a lecturer to generals at CHEM.<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p125" /> De Gaulle's superiors disapproved of his views about tanks, and he was passed over for promotion to full colonel in 1936, supposedly because his service record was not good enough. He called on his political patron Reynaud, who showed his record to Minister of War [[Édouard Daladier]]. Daladier, who was an enthusiast for rearmament with modern weapons, ensured that his name was on the promotion list for the following year.<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|109}}<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 147–148</ref>

In 1937 General Bineau, who had taught him at Saint-Cyr, wrote on his report on his lectureship at CHEM that he was highly able and suitable for high command in the future, but that he hid his attributes under "a cold and lofty attitude".<ref name="Lacouture 1991, p125" /> He was put in command of the 507th Tank Regiment (a battalion of medium [[Char D2]]s and a battalion of [[Renault R35|R35 light tanks]]) at [[Metz]] on 13 July 1937, and his promotion to full colonel took effect on 24 December that year. De Gaulle attracted public attention by leading a parade of 80 tanks into the Place d'Armes at Metz, in his command tank "[[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]]".<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 149–150, 169</ref>

By now de Gaulle was becoming a well-known figure, known as "Colonel Motor(s)".<ref name="Fenby-2010" />{{RP|117}} At the invitation of the publisher [[Plon (publisher)|Plon]], he produced another book, ''La France et son Armée (France and Her Army)'' in 1938. De Gaulle incorporated much of the text he had written for Pétain a decade earlier for the uncompleted book ''Le Soldat'', to Pétain's displeasure. De Gaulle agreed to include a dedication to Pétain (although he wrote his own rather than using the draft Pétain sent him), which was dropped from postwar editions. Until 1938 Pétain had treated de Gaulle, as Lacouture puts it, "with unbounded good will", but by October 1938 he privately thought his former protégé "an ambitious man, and very ill-bred".<ref>Lacouture 1991, pp. 157–165, 213–215</ref>