Editing Cannabis (section)

===20th century===
{{Further|Feral cannabis}}
[[File:Cannabis ruderalis.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Cannabis ruderalis]]'']]
In 1924, Russian botanist D.E. Janichevsky concluded that [[ruderal]] ''Cannabis'' in central Russia is either a variety of ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' or a separate species, and proposed ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' L. var. ''ruderalis'' Janisch, and ''Cannabis ruderalis'' Janisch, as alternative names.<ref name=small1975b/> In 1929, renowned plant explorer [[Nikolai Vavilov]] assigned wild or feral populations of ''Cannabis'' in Afghanistan to ''C.&nbsp;indica'' Lam. var. ''kafiristanica'' Vav., and ruderal populations in Europe to ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' L. var. ''spontanea'' Vav.<ref name="hillig2004a"/><ref name=small1976a/> Vavilov, in 1931, proposed a three species system, independently reinforced by Schultes ''et al'' (1975)<ref>{{Citation |last1=Schultes |first1=Richard Evans |title=Cannabis: An Example of Taxonomic Neglect |date=1975-12-31 |work=Cannabis and Culture |pages=21–38 |editor-last=Rubin |editor-first=Vera |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110812060.21/html |access-date=2024-07-22 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |doi=10.1515/9783110812060.21 |isbn=978-90-279-7669-7 |last2=Klein |first2=William M. |last3=Plowman |first3=Timothy |last4=Lockwood |first4=Tom E.}}</ref> and Emboden (1974):<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Emboden |first=William A. |date=1974 |title=Cannabis — a polytypic genus |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02861427 |journal=Economic Botany |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=304–310 |doi=10.1007/BF02861427 |bibcode=1974EcBot..28..304E |issn=0013-0001}}</ref> ''C. sativa'', ''C. indica'' and ''C. ruderalis.<ref name=":1" />''

In 1940, Russian botanists Serebriakova and Sizov proposed a complex poly-species classification in which they also recognized ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' and ''C.&nbsp;indica'' as separate species. Within ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' they recognized two subspecies: ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' L. subsp. ''culta'' Serebr. (consisting of cultivated plants), and ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' L. subsp. ''spontanea'' (Vav.) Serebr. (consisting of wild or feral plants). Serebriakova and Sizov split the two ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' subspecies into 13 varieties, including four distinct groups within subspecies ''culta''. However, they did not divide ''C.&nbsp;indica'' into subspecies or varieties.<ref name="small1975b" /><ref name="serebriakova1940">{{cite book | vauthors = Serebriakova TY, Sizov IA | date = 1940 | chapter = Cannabinaceae Lindl. | veditors = Vavilov NI | title = Kulturnaya Flora SSSR | volume = 5 | location = Moscow-Leningrad, USSR | pages = 1–53 | language = Russian }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Koren |first1=Anamarija |last2=Sikora |first2=Vladimir |last3=Kiprovski |first3=Biljana |last4=Brdar-Jokanović |first4=Milka |last5=Aćimović |first5=Milica |last6=Konstantinović |first6=Bojan |last7=Latković |first7=Dragana |date=2020 |title=Controversial taxonomy of hemp |url=https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?ID=0534-00122001001K |journal=Genetika |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=1–13 |doi=10.2298/gensr2001001k}}</ref> Zhukovski, in 1950, also proposed a two-species system, but with ''C. sativa'' L. and ''C. ruderalis''.<ref>Zhukovskii, P.M. (1971) ''Cultivated plants and their wild relatives''. 3rd ed. Leningrad, USSR, Kolos.</ref>

In the 1970s, the taxonomic classification of ''Cannabis'' took on added significance in North America. Laws prohibiting ''Cannabis'' in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]] specifically named products of ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' as prohibited materials. Enterprising attorneys for the defense in a few drug busts argued that the seized ''Cannabis'' material may not have been ''C.&nbsp;sativa'', and was therefore not prohibited by law. Attorneys on both sides recruited botanists to provide expert testimony. Among those testifying for the prosecution was Dr. Ernest Small, while [[Richard E. Schultes|Dr. Richard E. Schultes]] and others testified for the defense. The botanists engaged in heated debate (outside of court), and both camps impugned the other's integrity.<ref name=small1975a/><ref name=emboden1981a/> The defense attorneys were not often successful in winning their case, because the intent of the law was clear.<ref name="watts2006">{{cite journal | vauthors = Watts G | title = Cannabis confusions | journal = BMJ | volume = 332 | issue = 7534 | pages = 175–6 | date = January 2006 | pmid = 16424501 | pmc = 1336775 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.332.7534.175 }}</ref> 
[[File:Cannabis_taxonomy_theories.jpg|center|thumb|531x531px|Three theories of classification for ''Cannabis''. From left to right, monotypic with three subspecies (A), polytypic consisting of up to three species (B), and single phenotypically diverse species (C).]]In 1976, Canadian botanist Ernest Small<ref name="smallbiography">[http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_gene_e?mlist-authors-small_e.html Ernest Small (biography)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070211135642/http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/cgi-bin/rp/rp2_gene_e?mlist-authors-small_e.html |date=11 February 2007 }}. National Research Council Canada. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref> and American taxonomist [[Arthur Cronquist]] published a taxonomic revision that recognizes a single species of ''Cannabis'' with two subspecies (hemp or drug; based on THC and CBD levels) and two varieties in each (domesticated or wild). The framework is thus:
* ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'', presumably [[Artificial selection|selected]] for traits that enhance fiber or seed production.
** ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''sativa'', domesticated variety.
** ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''sativa'' var. ''spontanea'' Vav., wild or escaped variety.
* ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' (Lam.) Small & Cronq.,<ref name=small1976a/> primarily selected for drug production.
** ''C. sativa'' L. subsp. ''indica'' var. ''indica'', domesticated variety.
** ''C. sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' var. ''kafiristanica'' (Vav.) Small & Cronq, wild or escaped variety.

This classification was based on several factors including interfertility, chromosome uniformity, chemotype, and numerical analysis of [[phenotypic]] characters.<ref name=small1973a/><ref name=small1976a/><ref name="small1976b">{{cite journal| vauthors = Small E, Jui PY, Lefkovitch LP |year=1976|title=A Numerical Taxonomic Analysis of Cannabis with Special Reference to Species Delimitation|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=1|issue=1|pages=67–84|jstor=2418840|doi=10.2307/2418840|bibcode=1976SysBo...1...67S }}</ref>

Professors William Emboden, Loran Anderson, and Harvard botanist [[Richard E. Schultes]] and coworkers also conducted taxonomic studies of ''Cannabis'' in the 1970s, and concluded that stable [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] differences exist that support recognition of at least three species, ''C.&nbsp;sativa'', ''C.&nbsp;indica'', and ''C.&nbsp;ruderalis.''<ref name="schultes1974a">{{cite journal | vauthors = Schultes RE, Klein WM, Plowman T, Lockwood TE | year = 1974 | title = ''Cannabis'': an example of taxonomic neglect | journal = Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets | volume = 23 |issue=9 | pages = 337–367 |doi=10.5962/p.168565 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="anderson1974a">[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308011913/http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php |date=8 March 2009 }} 1974. A study of systematic wood anatomy in ''Cannabis''. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''24''': 29–36. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name="anderson1980a">[http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php Anderson, L. C.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090308011913/http://www.bio.fsu.edu/faculty-anderson.php |date=8 March 2009 }} 1980. Leaf variation among ''Cannabis'' species from a controlled garden. ''Harvard University Botanical Museum Leaflets'' '''28''': 61–69. Retrieved on 23 February 2007</ref><ref name=emboden1974a>{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/BF02861427|title=Cannabis — a polytypic genus|year=1974| vauthors = Emboden WA |journal=Economic Botany|volume=28|issue=3|pages=304–310|bibcode=1974EcBot..28..304E |s2cid=35358047}}</ref> For Schultes, this was a reversal of his previous interpretation that ''Cannabis'' is monotypic, with only a single species.<ref name="schultes1970a">{{cite book | vauthors = Schultes RE | date = 1970 | chapter = Random thoughts and queries on the botany of ''Cannabis'' | veditors = Joyce CR, Curry SH | title = The Botany and Chemistry of Cannabis | publisher = J. & A. Churchill | location = London | pages = 11–38 }}</ref> According to Schultes' and Anderson's descriptions, ''C.&nbsp;sativa'' is tall and laxly branched with relatively narrow leaflets, ''C.&nbsp;indica'' is shorter, conical in shape, and has relatively wide leaflets, and ''C.&nbsp;ruderalis'' is short, branchless, and grows wild in [[Central Asia]]. This taxonomic interpretation was embraced by ''Cannabis'' aficionados who commonly distinguish narrow-leafed "sativa" strains from wide-leafed "indica" strains.<ref name="clarke2005a">[https://web.archive.org/web/20110727002712/http://www.norml.org.nz/modules.php?name=News&file=print&sid=588 Interview with Robert Connell Clarke]. 1 January 2005. NORML, New Zealand. Retrieved on 19 February 2007</ref> McPartland's review finds the Schultes taxonomy inconsistent with prior work (protologs) and partly responsible for the popular usage.<ref name="pmid30426073"/>