Editing Bongo (antelope) (section)

==Population and conservation==
Few estimates of population density are available. Assuming average population densities of 0.25 animals per km<sup>2</sup> in regions where it is known to be common or abundant, and 0.02 per km<sup>2</sup> elsewhere, and with a total area of occupancy of 327,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, a total population estimate of around 28,000 is suggested. Only about 60% are in protected areas, suggesting the actual numbers of the lowland subspecies may only be in the low tens of thousands. In Kenya, their numbers have declined significantly and on [[Mount Kenya]], they were [[Wiktionary:extirpate|extirpated]] within the last decade due to illegal hunting with dogs. Although information on their status in the wild is lacking, lowland bongos are not presently considered endangered.

Bongos are susceptible to diseases such as [[rinderpest]], which almost exterminated the species during the 1890s. ''Tragelaphus eurycerus'' may suffer from [[goitre]]. Over the course of the disease, the [[thyroid glands]] greatly enlarge (up to 10 x 20&nbsp;cm) and may become [[:wikt:polycystic|polycystic]]. Pathogenesis of goiter in the bongo may reflect a mixture of genetic predisposition coupled with environmental factors, including a period of exposure to a [[goitrogen]].<ref name='schiller'>{{Cite journal
 | doi = 10.1177/030098589503200305
| pmid = 7604491
| title = Clinical and Morphologic Findings of Familial Goiter in Bongo Antelope (Tragelaphus eurycerus)
| journal = Veterinary Pathology
| volume = 32
| issue = 3
| pages = 242–9
| year = 1995
| last1 = Schiller | first1 = C. A.
| last2 = Montali | first2 = R. J.
| last3 = Doi | first3 = S.
| last4 = Grollman | first4 = E. F.
| s2cid = 26590186
}}</ref> [[Leopard]]s and [[spotted hyena]]s are the primary natural predators ([[lion]]s are seldom encountered due to differing habitat preferences); [[Pythonidae|pythons]] sometimes eat bongo calves. Humans prey on them for their [[Fur|pelt]]s, horns, and meat, with the species being a common local source for "bush meat".<ref name=MSW3/> Bongo populations have been greatly reduced by hunting, [[poaching]], and [[animal trapping]], although some bongo refuges exist.

Although bongos are quite easy for humans to catch using snares, many people native to the bongos' habitat believed that if they ate or touched bongo, they would have spasms similar to [[epileptic seizures]]. Because of this [[superstition]], bongos were less harmed in their native ranges than expected. However, these taboos are said no longer to exist, which may account for increased hunting by humans in recent times.

===Zoo programmes===
[[Image:Eastern Bongo at Edinburgh Zoo.jpg|thumb|upright|Eastern bongo at [[Edinburgh Zoo]]]] 
An international studbook is maintained to help manage animals held in captivity. Because of its bright colour, it is very popular in zoos and private collections. In North America, over 400 individuals are thought to be held, a population that probably exceeds that of the mountain bongo in the wild.

In 2000, the [[Association of Zoos and Aquariums]] (AZA) upgraded the bongo to a Species Survival Plan participant, which works to improve the [[genetic diversity]] of managed animal populations. The target population for participating zoos and private collections in North America is 250 animals. Through the efforts of zoos in North America, a reintroduction to the population in Kenya is being developed.

At least one collaborative effort for reintroduction between North American wildlife facilities has already been carried out. In 2004, 18 eastern bongos born in North American zoos gathered at [[White Oak Conservation]] in [[Yulee, Florida]] for release in Kenya. White Oak staff members traveled with the bongos to a Mount Kenya holding facility, where they stayed until being reintroduced.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eastern Bongo|url=http://www.whiteoakwildlife.org/animal-programs/eastern-bongo/|access-date=21 June 2013}}</ref>

===Conservation===
In the last few decades, a rapid decline in the numbers of wild mountain bongo has occurred due to poaching and human pressure on their habitat, with local extinctions reported in [[Cherangani Hills|Cherangani]] and [[Chepalungu]] hills, Kenya.

The Bongo Surveillance Programme, working alongside the [[Kenya Wildlife Service]], have recorded photos of bongos at remote salt licks in the Aberdare Forests using camera traps, and, by analyzing [[DNA]] extracted from [[Feces|dung]], have confirmed the presence of bongo in Mount Kenya, [[Ol Doinyo Eburru|Eburru]], and [[Mau forest]]s. The programme estimate as few as 140 animals left in the wild – spread across four isolated populations. Whilst captive breeding programmes can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe and North America, the situation in the wild has been less promising. Evidence exists of bongo surviving in Kenya. However, these populations are believed to be small, fragmented, and vulnerable to extinction.

Animal populations with impoverished genetic diversity are inherently less able to adapt to changes in their environments (such as climate change, disease outbreaks, habitat change, etc.). The isolation of the four remaining small bongo populations, which themselves would appear to be in decline, means a substantial amount of genetic material is lost each generation. Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater, so the establishment of a "metapopulation management plan" occurs concurrently with conservation initiatives to enhance ''in situ'' population growth, and this initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of mountain bongo in the wild.

The western/lowland bongo faces an ongoing population decline as [[habitat destruction]] and hunting pressures increase with the relentless expansion of human settlement. Its long-term survival will only be assured in areas which receive active protection and management. At present, such areas comprise about 30,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, and several are in countries where political stability is fragile. So, a realistic possibility exists whereby its status could decline to Threatened in the near future.

As the largest and most spectacular forest antelope, the western/lowland bongo is both an important flagship species for protected areas such as national parks, and a major trophy species which has been taken in increasing numbers in Central Africa by sport hunters during the 1990s.<ref name=j1>{{Cite journal
 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-3008.1999.00079.x
| title = The potential role of safari hunting as a source of revenue for protected areas in the Congo Basin
| journal = Oryx
| volume = 33
| issue = 4
| pages = 340
| year = 1999
| last1 = Wilkie | first1 = D. S. 
| last2 = Carpenter | first2 = J. 
| doi-access = free
}}</ref> Both of these factors are strong incentives to provide effective protection and management of populations.<ref>Institute of Applied Ecology (1998). "''Tragelaphus eurycerus''". In ''African Mammals Databank – A Databank for the Conservation and Management of the African Mammals'' Vol 1 and 2. Bruxelles: European Commission Directorate</ref>

[[Image:Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci.jpg|thumb|A young mountain bongo grazes]]
<!--One of the reasons often cited for the popularity of the bongo as a prized hunting target was a highly publicized hunting trip taken by [[Maurice Stans]], an official in Richard Nixon's cabinet, to Uganda. During the trip, Stans killed two bongos, and after this, their desirability among wealthy hunters rose substantially.{{Citation needed|date=September 2007}}-->

[[Trophy hunting]] has the potential to provide economic justification for the preservation of larger areas of bongo habitat than national parks, especially in remote regions of Central Africa, where possibilities for commercially successful tourism are very limited.<ref name=j1/>

The eastern/mountain bongo's survival in the wild is dependent on more effective protection of the surviving remnant populations in Kenya. If this does not occur, it will eventually become extinct in the wild. The existence of a healthy captive population of this subspecies offers the potential for its reintroduction.<ref name=iucn-species/>

===Groups supporting bongo conservation in Kenya===
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:Four bongo calves with nanny.jpg|thumb|left|Four bongo calves photographed here with a "nanny": All will be released into the wild near Mount Kenya.]] -->
In 2004, Dr. Jake Veasey, the head of the Department of Animal Management and Conservation at [[Woburn Safari Park]] and a member of the European Association of Zoos and Aquariums Population Management Advisory Group, with the assistance of Lindsay Banks, took over responsibility for the management and coordination of the European Endangered Species Programme for the eastern bongo. This includes some 250 animals across Europe and the Middle East.

Along with the [[Rothschild giraffe]], the eastern bongo is arguably one of the most threatened large mammals in Africa, with recent estimates numbering less than 140 animals, below a minimum sustainable viable population. The situation is exacerbated because these animals are spread across four isolated populations. Whilst the bongo endangered species program can be viewed as having been successful in ensuring survival of this species in Europe, it has not yet become actively involved in the conservation of this species in the wild in a coordinated fashion. The plan is to engage in conservation activities in Kenya to assist in reversing the decline of the eastern bongo populations and genetic diversity in Africa, and in particular, applying population management expertise to help ensure the persistence of genetic diversity in the free ranging wild populations.

[[Image:Baby Bongo 002.jpg|thumb|upright|A baby eastern bongo at [[Louisville Zoo]] in [[Kentucky]]]]
[[File:Mountain Bongo 1.jpg|thumb|Mountain bongos in captivity at the Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy (2019)]]
To illustrate significance of genetic diversity loss, assume the average metapopulation size is 35 animals based on 140 animals spread across four populations (140/4=35). Assuming stable populations, these populations will lose 8% of their genetic diversity every decade. By managing all four populations as one, through strategic transfers, gene loss is reduced from 8% to 2% per decade, without any increase in bongo numbers in Kenya. By managing the European and African populations as one – by strategic exports from Europe combined with ''in situ'' transfers, gene loss is reduced to 0.72% every 100 years, with both populations remaining stable. If populations in Kenya are allowed to grow through the implementation of effective conservation, including strategic transfers, gene loss can be effectively halted in this species and its future secured in the wild.

The initial aims of the project are: 
# Through faecal [[DNA]] analysis, estimate the genetic diversity of the remaining wild bongos and calculate the relatedness of the isolated wild populations.
# More accurately estimate the total population of wild bongos through faecal DNA analysis, camera trapping, and transect surveying.
# Through direct sampling, estimate the genetic diversity of the captive bongo population and calculate its relatedness with the remaining isolated wild populations.
# Collect DNA samples from western bongos to calculate the relatedness of the two subspecies.
# Fund rangers to collect the above data in Kenya, enhance the degree of protection afforded to and level of understanding of the eastern bongos' ecological needs.
# To realise such a metapopulation management plan, work with local communities is essential to reverse the decline and allow for the implementation of a transfer strategy. A substantial proportion of wild genetic diversity likely will have already been lost.

If effective protection were implemented immediately and bongo populations allowed to expand without transfers, then this would create a bigger population of genetically impoverished bongos. These animals would be less able to adapt to a dynamic environment. Whilst the population remains small, the impact of transfers will be greater. For this reason, the 'metapopulation management plan' must occur concurrently with conservation strategies to enhance ''in situ'' population growth. This initiative is both urgent and fundamental to the future survival of the mountain bongo in the wild.

<!-- uncited, different from Programme? In 2010, at the Woburn Safari Park, a conservation campaign was held to help raise money to support the Bongo Surveillance Project and the Kenyan Wildlife Service. repeat?   On Friday 6 August 2010, Woburn held a fundraising evening with extra activities and later opening times.-->
In 2013, SafariCom telecommunications donated money to the Bongo Surveillance Programme<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20100924065758/http://www.mountainbongo.org/index2.html Bongo Surveillance Programme monitoring and surveillance continues in Aberdare, Mt. kenya, Eburru and South West Mau]. mountainbongo.org</ref> to try to keep tabs on what are thought to be the last 100 eastern bongos left in the wild in the Mau Eburu Forest in central Kenya, whose numbers are still declining due to logging of their habitat and illegal poaching.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-22207922 Kenya's Mountain Bongo antelope under threat]. BBC News. 18 April 2013</ref>

[[Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy]] runs a bongo rehabilitation program in collaboration with the Kenya Wildlife Service.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.magicalkenya.com/what-to-see/conservancies/mount-kenya-wildlife-conservancy/|title=Mount Kenya Wildlife Conservancy - Magical Kenya|work=Magical Kenya|access-date=2017-04-12|language=en-US|archive-date=13 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413071010/http://www.magicalkenya.com/what-to-see/conservancies/mount-kenya-wildlife-conservancy/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Conservancy aims to prevent extinction of the bongo through breeding and release back into the wild.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.animalorphanagekenya.org/what-we-do/wildlife-rehabilitation/|title=Wildlife Rehabilitation {{!}} Mt. Kenya Wildlife Conservancy|website=www.animalorphanagekenya.org|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-12}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/lifestyle/article/2000200356/date-with-the-mountain-bongo|title=Date with the mountain bongo|last=Mulli|first=Thorn|work=The Standard|access-date=2017-04-12|language=en}}</ref>