Editing Battle of Poitiers (section)

==Opposing forces==
===Anglo-Gascon army===
[[File:The battle of Poitiers.jpg|thumb|alt=A contemporary depiction of men-at-arms fighting on foot|{{center|The Battle of Poitiers}}]]
The Anglo-Gascon army is generally considered by modern historians to have consisted of 6,000 men: 3,000 men-at-arms, 2,000 English and Welsh [[English longbow|longbowmen]] and 1,000 Gascon infantry.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=352, 352 n. 20}} The latter included many equipped with either [[crossbows]] or [[javelin]]s, both classed as [[light infantry]].{{sfn|Nicolle|2004|p=21}} Some contemporary accounts give lower numbers of 4,800 or 5,000.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=352, 352 n. 20}} The division of the men-at-arms between English and Gascons is not recorded, but the previous year, when campaigning with a similarly sized army, 1,000 of the Prince's men-at-arms had been English.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=305 n. 103}} All of the Anglo-Gascons travelled on horses, but all or nearly all of them dismounted to fight.{{sfn|Sumption|1999|p=225}}

The men-at-arms of both armies were, broadly, [[knight]]s or knights in training. They were drawn from the landed gentry and ranged from great lords to the relatives and attendants of minor landowners. They needed to be able to equip themselves with a full suit of armour and a warhorse.{{sfn|Wagner|2006a|pp=21–23}} They wore a quilted [[gambeson]] under [[mail (armour)|chain mail]] which covered the body and limbs. This was supplemented by varying amounts of [[plate armour]] on the body and limbs, more so for wealthier and more experienced men. Heads were protected by [[bascinet]]s: open-faced military iron or steel helmets, with mail attached to the lower edge of the helmet to protect the throat, neck and shoulders. A moveable visor (face guard) protected the face. [[Heater shield]]s, typically made from thin wood overlaid with leather, were carried. The English men-at-arms were all dismounted. The weapons they used are not recorded, but in similar battles they used their [[lance]]s as pikes, cut them down to use as short [[spear]]s, or fought with swords and battle-axes.{{sfn|Edge|Paddock|1988|pp=68–83}}{{sfn|Mallett|1974|p=37}}
[[File:Bodkin1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.6|alt=A photograph of an iron arrowhead|{{center|A modern replica of a [[bodkin point]] arrowhead used by [[English longbows]] to penetrate armour}}]]

The [[longbow]] used by the English and Welsh archers was unique to them; it took up to ten years to master and an experienced archer could discharge up to ten arrows per minute well over {{convert|330|yd}}.{{#tag:ref|This range is given by material scientists and is supported by most modern historians. Some historians argue that the range of a longbow would not have exceeded {{convert|210|yd|sigfig=1}}.{{sfn|Mitchell|2008|p=242}}|group=note}} Computer analysis by [[Warsaw University of Technology]] in 2017 demonstrated that heavy [[bodkin point]] arrows could penetrate typical plate armour of the time at {{convert|250|yd}}. The depth of penetration would be slight at that range; predicted penetration increased as the range closed or against armour of less than the best quality available at the time.{{sfn|Magier|Nowak|Tomasz|Zochowski|2017|pp=73, 77, 81, 84}}{{#tag:ref|When computer modelling from 2006 was matched against the performance of replica bows, these were found to be "in good agreement with experimental measurements".{{sfn|Pratt|2010|p=216}}|group=note}} At short range longbow arrows could pierce any practicable thickness of plate armour if they struck at the correct angle.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=379}}{{sfn|Rogers|1998|p=239}} Archers carried one [[quiver]] of 24 arrows as standard. There may have been a resupply of ammunition from the wagons to the rear during the battle to at least some longbowmen; the archers also ventured forward during pauses in the fighting to retrieve arrows.{{sfn|Strickland|Hardy|2011|pp=31, 278–279}}

The Anglo-Gascons were divided into three divisions or "[[Battle (formation)|battles]]". The one on the left was commanded by [[Thomas Beauchamp, 11th Earl of Warwick|Thomas, Earl of Warwick]],{{sfn|Hoskins|2011|p=179}} [[Earl Marshal|marshal of England]]{{sfn|Livingstone|Witzel|2018|p=41}} and a veteran of the Battle of Crecy, where he had been guardian to the Black Prince. He had as deputies [[John de Vere, 7th Earl of Oxford|John, Earl of Oxford]], and the Gascon lord [[Jean III de Grailly|Jean]], [[Captal de Buch]]; they were assisted by mostly Gascon lords. As well as 1,000 men-at-arms, Warwick's division contained approximately 1,000 archers. The archers were positioned to the left of the men-at-arms. The right flank was under [[William de Montagu, 2nd Earl of Salisbury|William, Earl of Salisbury]], deputised by [[Robert Ufford, 1st Earl of Suffolk|Robert, Earl of Suffolk]], and [[Maurice de Berkeley, 4th Baron Berkeley|Maurice, Baron Berkeley]]. Salisbury's division, like Warwick's, consisted of about 1,000 men-at-arms and 1,000 Welsh and English longbowmen. Again the archers were positioned on the flank of the men-at-arms, in this case the right.{{sfn|Hoskins|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Livingstone|Witzel|2018|p=41}} The Black Prince took command of the centre division, which consisted of men-at-arms and Gascon infantry: about 1,000 of each, only the flanking divisions contained longbowmen. He had two veteran campaigners, [[John Chandos]] and [[James Audley (died 1369)|James Audley]], as his deputies. Initially the Prince's force was held back behind the other two divisions as a reserve.{{sfn|Hoskins|2011|p=179}}{{sfn|Livingstone|Witzel|2018|p=41}} Each division deployed four to five men deep.{{sfn|Jones|2019|p=184}} It is possible a further, small, reserve was held back behind the Prince's division.{{sfn|Sumption|1999|p=242}}

===French army===
[[File:Armborst 4, Nordisk familjebok.png|thumb|left|upright=0.6|alt=a pen and ink sketch of a medieval crossbowman winding back the bowstring of his weapon|{{center|A crossbowman of the period, reloading}}]]

The French army was made up of between 14,000 and 16,000 men: 10,000 to 12,000 were men-at-arms, 2,000 were [[Arbalist (crossbowman)|crossbowmen]] and 2,000 were infantrymen who were not classed as men-at-arms.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=377, 377 n. 150}} Although most or all of the French had travelled mounted, they all fought dismounted at Poitiers except for two small groups of mounted [[knight]]s, totalling either 300{{sfn|Rothero|1995|p=11}} or 500. These were selected from the Frenchmen who had the best armour, especially on their horses; horse armour is known as [[barding]] and the use of plate armour for this was a recent innovation in Western Europe.{{sfn|Livingstone|Witzel|2018|p=208}} Their riders were equipped as the dismounted men-at-arms, apart from the superior quality of their armour. They wielded wooden lances, usually ash, tipped with iron and approximately {{convert|13|ft|0}} long;{{sfn|Edge|Paddock|1988|p=88}} their dismounted colleagues retained their lances, but cut them down to {{convert|5|to|6|ft}} in order to use them as short spears.{{sfn|Rothero|1995|p=11}}{{sfn|Nicolle|2004|p=51}} The crossbowmen wore metal helmets, [[brigandine]]s (thick leather [[jerkin]]s with varying amounts of small pieces of plate armour sewn to them) and possibly chain-mail [[hauberk]]s. Crossbowmen usually fought from behind [[pavises]]{{snd}}very large shields with their own bearers, behind each of which three crossbowmen could shelter.{{sfn|Rothero|1995|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Livingstone|Witzel|2018|p=61}} A trained crossbowman could shoot his weapon approximately twice a minute{{sfn|Magier|Nowak|Tomasz|Zochowski|2017|p=70}} and had a shorter effective range than a longbowman{{sfn|Rogers|1998|p=238}} of about {{convert|200|m|yd|sigfig=2|order=flip}}.{{sfn|Bachrach|Bachrach|2017|p=236}}

The French army was divided into four battles. The foremost division was led by the [[Grand Constable of France|constable of France]], [[Walter VI, Count of Brienne|Walter, Count of Brienne]]. As well as a large core of French men-at-arms it included 200 Scottish men-at-arms under William Douglas, most of the French infantry and crossbowmen and all of their cavalry.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|pp=378–379, 381}} The two small groups of cavalry were each led by one of the two [[List of Marshals of France|marshals of France]]: [[Arnoul d'Audrehem]] and [[Jean de Clermont]].{{sfn|Green|2013|p=41}} The leading French were approximately {{convert|500|yd|sigfig=1}} from the English.{{sfn|Rothero|1995|p=11}} Behind this was a division led jointly by John's 19-year-old son and heir and John's uncle: Charles, the Dauphin, and [[Peter I, Duke of Bourbon|Peter, Duke of Bourbon]], respectively;{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=379}} Charles was experiencing his first taste of war.{{sfn|Rothero|1995|p=11}} This formation consisted entirely of dismounted men-at-arms, 4,000 of them.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=379}} The third division was led by John's younger brother, [[Philip, Duke of Orléans]], also inexperienced in war,{{sfn|Rothero|1995|p=11}} and was made up of approximately 3,200 men-at-arms.{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=380}} The rearmost division, of 2,000 men-at-arms and an uncertain number of crossbowmen, was commanded by the king himself.{{sfn|Livingstone|Witzel|2018|p=208}}{{sfn|Rogers|2014|p=380}}