Editing Battle of Hastings (section)

==Battle==

===Background and location===
[[File:Schlachtfeld Schlacht bei Hastings juni09.JPG|thumb|The battlefield from the north side]]
Because many of the primary accounts contradict each other at times, it is impossible to provide an authoritative description of the battle.<ref name=Lawson183>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 183–184</ref> The only undisputed facts are that fighting began at 9&nbsp;am Saturday 14 October 1066 and that the battle lasted until dusk.<ref name=Marren114>Marren ''1066'' p. 114</ref> Sunset on the day of the battle was at 4:54&nbsp;pm, with the battlefield mostly dark by 5:54&nbsp;pm and in full darkness by 6:24&nbsp;pm. Moonrise that night was not until 11:12&nbsp;pm, so once the sun set, there was little light on the battlefield.<ref name=Lawson212>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 212–213</ref> [[William of Jumièges]] reports that William kept his army armed and ready against a surprise attack for the entire night before.<ref name=Lawson183/> The battle took place {{convert|7|mi|km|abbr=on}} north of Hastings at the present-day town of [[Battle, East Sussex|Battle]],<ref name=Gravett91>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 91</ref> between two hills&nbsp;– Caldbec Hill to the north and Telham Hill to the south. The area was heavily wooded, with a marsh nearby.<ref name=Marren101>Marren ''1066'' p. 101</ref> The name traditionally given to the battle is unusual&nbsp;– there were several settlements much closer to the battlefield than Hastings. The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' calls it the battle "at the hoary apple tree". Within 40 years, the battle was described by the Anglo-Norman chronicler [[Orderic Vitalis]] as "Senlac",{{efn|This was the name popularised by [[Edward Augustus Freeman|Edward Freeman]],<ref name=Lawson57/> a Victorian historian who wrote one of the definitive accounts of the battle.<ref name=Lawson129>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 129</ref>}} a Norman-French adaptation of the Old English word "Sandlacu", which means "sandy water".{{efn|"Sandlacu" can be rendered into Modern English as "sandlake".<ref name=Lawson57>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 57</ref>}} This may have been the name of the stream that crosses the battlefield.{{efn|Freeman suggested that "Senlac" meant "sand lake" in [[Old English]] with the Norman conquerors calling it (in French) "sanguelac". Freeman regarded this use as a pun because the English translation of "sanguelac" is "blood lake".<ref name=freeman745>Freeman ''History of the Norman Conquest'' pp. 743–751</ref>}} The battle was already being referred to as "bellum Haestingas" or "Battle of Hastings" by 1086, in the [[Domesday Book]].<ref name=Marren157>Marren ''1066'' p. 157</ref>

The sun rose at 6:48&nbsp;am that morning, with the day unusually bright.<ref name=Gravett59>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 59</ref> The weather conditions are not recorded.<ref name=Marren116/> The precise route of the English army southward to the battlefield is not known. Several roads are possible: one, an old Roman road that ran from Rochester to Hastings has long been favoured because of a large coin hoard found nearby in 1876. Another possibility is the Roman road between London and Lewes and then over local tracks to the battlefield.<ref name=Lawson183/> Some accounts of the battle indicate that the Normans advanced from Hastings to the battlefield, but the contemporary account of William of Jumièges places the Normans at the site of the battle the night before.<ref name=Lawson186>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 186–187</ref> Most historians incline towards the former view,<ref name=Marren99/><ref name=Gravett59/><ref name=Huscroft125>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' pp. 125–126</ref><ref name=Bennett40>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 40</ref> but M. K. Lawson argues that William of Jumièges's account is correct.<ref name=Lawson186/>

===Dispositions of forces and tactics===
[[File:Battle of Hastings, 1066.png|thumb|left|Battle dispositions]]
Harold's forces deployed in a small, dense formation at the top of a steep slope,<ref name=Gravett59/> with their flanks protected by woods and marshy ground in front of them.<ref name=Bennett40/> The line may have extended far enough to be anchored on a nearby stream.<ref name=Lawson190>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 190–191</ref> The English formed a shield wall, with the front ranks holding their shields close together or even overlapping to protect from attack.<ref name=Gravett64/> Sources differ on the exact site at which the English fought: some sources state the site of the abbey,<ref name=Hare84>Hare ''Battle Abbey'' p. 11</ref><ref name=EngHer05Oct2016>English Heritage ''Research on Battle Abbey and Battlefield''</ref><ref name=BattlefieldsTrust05Oct2016>Battlefields Trust ''Battle of Hastings''</ref> but some newer sources suggest it was Caldbec Hill.<ref name=Lawson190/><ref name=Gravett59/>

More is known about the Norman deployment.<ref name=Lawson192>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' p. 192</ref> William appears to have arranged his forces in three groups, or "battles", which roughly corresponded to their origins. The left units were the [[Breton people|Bretons]],<ref name=Bennett41/> along with those from [[County of Anjou|Anjou]], [[Poitou]] and [[Maine (province)|Maine]]. This division was led by [[Alan Rufus|Alan the Red]], a relative of the Breton count.<ref name=Gravett64>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 64</ref> The centre was held by the Normans,<ref name=Bennett41/> under the direct command of William and with many of his relatives and kinsmen grouped around the ducal party.<ref name=Gravett64/> The final division, on the right, consisted of the Frenchmen,<ref name=Bennett41/> along with some men from [[Picardy]], [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]], and [[County of Flanders|Flanders]]. The right was commanded by [[William fitzOsbern]] and Count [[Eustace II, Count of Boulogne|Eustace II of Boulogne]].<ref name=Gravett64/> The front lines were made up of archers, with a line of foot soldiers armed with spears behind.<ref name=Bennett41/> There were probably a few crossbowmen and slingers in with the archers.<ref name=Gravett64/> The cavalry was held in reserve,<ref name=Bennett41>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 41</ref> and a small group of clergymen and servants situated at the base of Telham Hill was not expected to take part in the fighting.<ref name=Gravett64/>

William's disposition of his forces implies that he planned to open the battle with archers in the front rank weakening the enemy with arrows, followed by infantry who would engage in close combat. The infantry would create openings in the English lines that could be exploited by a cavalry charge to break through the English forces and pursue the fleeing soldiers.<ref name=Gravett64/>

===Beginning of the battle===
[[File:Hastingsbattlefieldandbattleabbeyruinsbeta.jpg|thumb|View of the battlefield looking towards [[Senlac Hill]]]]

The battle opened with the Norman archers shooting uphill at the English shield wall, to little effect. The uphill angle meant that the arrows either bounced off the shields of the English or overshot their targets and flew over the top of the hill.<ref name=Bennett41/>{{efn|There is a story that the first fighting at Hastings was between a [[jongleur]] named Taillefer and some of the English fighters which comes from three sources: the ''[[Carmen de Hastingae Proelio]]'', Wace's ''Romance de Rou'', and the 12th-century account of [[Henry of Huntingdon]].<ref name=Gravett64/> The story has two versions, in one of which Taillefer entertained the Norman army before the battle by juggling a sword but then killed an English soldier sent to kill him. Another version has the jongleur charging the English and killing two before dying himself.<ref name=Marren116>Marren ''1066'' p. 116</ref>}}  The lack of English archers hampered the Norman archers, as there were few English arrows to be gathered up and reused.<ref name=Gravett65>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 65–67</ref> After the attack from the archers, William sent the spearmen forward to attack the English. They were met with a barrage of spears, axes and stones.<ref name=Bennett41/> The infantry was unable to force openings in the shield wall, and the cavalry advanced in support.<ref name=Gravett65/> The cavalry also failed to make headway, and a general retreat began, blamed on the Breton division on William's left.<ref name=Bennett42>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 42</ref> A rumour started that William had been killed, which added to the confusion. The English forces began to pursue the fleeing invaders, but William rode through his forces, showing his face and yelling that he was still alive.<ref name=Gravett68>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 68</ref> He then led a counter-attack against the pursuing English forces; some of the English rallied on a hillock before being overwhelmed.<ref name=Bennett42/>

It is not known whether the English pursuit was ordered by Harold or if it was spontaneous. The 12th-century chronicler [[Wace]] relates that Harold ordered his men to stay in their formations, but no other account gives this detail. The [[Bayeux Tapestry]] depicts the death of Gyrth and Leofwine occurring just before the fight around the hillock. This may mean that the two brothers led the pursuit.<ref name=Gravett72>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 72–73</ref> The ''[[Carmen de Hastingae Proelio]]'' relates a different story for the death of Gyrth, stating that William slew him in combat, perhaps thinking that Gyrth was Harold. William of Poitiers states that the bodies of Gyrth and Leofwine were found near Harold's, implying that they died late in the battle. It is possible that if the two brothers died early in the fighting their bodies were taken to Harold, thus accounting for their being found near his body after the battle. The military historian [[Peter Marren]] speculates that if Gyrth and Leofwine died early in the battle, that may have influenced Harold to stand and fight to the end.<ref name=Marren127>Marren ''1066'' pp. 127–128</ref>

===Feigned flights===
[[File:Bayeuxtapestryscene53.jpg|thumb|left|Scene from the Bayeux Tapestry showing mounted Norman cavalrymen fighting Anglo-Saxon infantry]]
A lull probably occurred early in the afternoon, and a break for rest and food would probably have been needed.<ref name=Gravett72/> William may have also needed time to implement a new strategy, which may have been inspired by the English pursuit and subsequent rout by the Normans. If the Normans could send their cavalry against the shield wall and then draw the English into more pursuits, breaks in the English line might form.<ref name=Bennett43>Bennett ''Campaigns of the Norman Conquest'' p. 43</ref> William of Poitiers says the tactic was used twice. Although arguments have been made that the chroniclers' accounts of this tactic were meant to excuse the flight of the Norman troops from battle, this is unlikely as the earlier flight was not glossed over. It was a tactic used by other Norman armies during the period.<ref name=Gravett72/>{{efn|Examples of the use of feigned flight include the [[Battle of Arques (1052)|Battle of Arques]] around 1052, the [[Battle of Messina (1060)|Battle of Messina]] in 1060, and the [[Battle of Cassel (1071)|Battle of Cassel]] in 1071.<ref name=Gravett72/>}} Some historians have argued that the story of the use of [[Feigned retreat|feigned flight]] as a deliberate tactic was invented after the battle; however most historians agree that it was used by the Normans at Hastings.<ref name=Marren130>Marren ''1066'' p. 130</ref>

Although the feigned flights did not break the lines, they probably thinned out the housecarls in the English shield wall. The housecarls were replaced with members of the ''fyrd'', and the shield wall held.<ref name=Gravett72/> Archers appear to have been used again before and during an assault by the cavalry and infantry led by William. Although 12th-century sources state that the archers were ordered to shoot at a high angle to shoot over the front of the shield wall, there is no trace of such an action in the more contemporary accounts.<ref name=Gravett76>Gravett ''Hastings'' pp. 76–78</ref> It is not known how many assaults were launched against the English lines, but some sources record various actions by both Normans and Englishmen that took place during the afternoon's fighting.<ref name=Marren131>Marren ''1066'' pp. 131–133</ref> The ''Carmen'' claims that William had two horses killed under him during the fighting, but William of Poitiers's account states that it was three.<ref name=Marren135>Marren ''1066'' p. 135</ref>

===Death of Harold===
[[File:Harold stone.JPG|thumb|right|Stone marking the spot of the high altar at [[Battle Abbey]], where Harold died<ref name=Gravett79>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 79</ref>]]

Harold appears to have died late in the battle, although accounts in the various sources are contradictory. William of Poitiers only mentions his death, without giving any details on how it occurred. The Bayeux Tapestry is not helpful, as it shows a figure holding an arrow sticking out of his eye next to a falling fighter being hit with a sword. Over both figures is a statement "Here King Harold has been killed".<ref name=Gravett76/> It is not clear which figure is meant to be Harold, or if both are meant.<ref name=Lawson207>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 207–210</ref>{{efn|The issue is further confused by the fact that there is evidence that the 19th-century restoration of the Tapestry changed the scene by inserting or changing the placement of the arrow through the eye.<ref name=Lawson207/>}} The earliest written mention of the traditional account of Harold dying from an arrow to the eye dates to the 1080s from a history of the Normans written by an Italian monk, [[Amatus of Montecassino]].<ref name=Marren138>Marren ''1066'' p. 138</ref>{{efn|Amatus' account is less than trustworthy because it also states that Duke William commanded 100,000 soldiers at Hastings.<ref name=Rex256/>}} [[William of Malmesbury]] states that Harold died from an arrow to the eye that went into the brain and that a knight wounded Harold at the same time. Wace repeats the arrow-to-the-eye account. The ''Carmen'' states that William killed Harold, but this is unlikely, as such a feat would have been recorded elsewhere.<ref name=Gravett76/> The account of William of Jumièges is even more unlikely, as it has Harold dying in the morning, during the first fighting. The ''Chronicle of Battle Abbey'' states that no one knew who killed Harold, as it happened in the press of battle.<ref name=Marren137>Marren ''1066'' p. 137</ref> A modern biographer of Harold, Ian Walker, states that Harold probably died from an arrow in the eye, although he also says it is possible that Harold was struck down by a Norman knight while mortally wounded in the eye.<ref name=Walker179>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 179–180</ref> Another biographer of Harold, Peter Rex, after discussing the various accounts, concludes that it is not possible to declare how Harold died.<ref name=Rex256>Rex ''Harold II'' pp. 256–263</ref>

Harold's death left the English forces leaderless, and they began to collapse.<ref name=Bennett43/> Many of them fled, but the soldiers of the royal household gathered around Harold's body and fought to the end.<ref name=Gravett76/> The Normans began to pursue the fleeing troops, and except for a rearguard action at a site known as the "Malfosse", the battle was over.<ref name=Bennett43/> Exactly what happened at the Malfosse, or "Evil Ditch", and where it took place, are unclear. It occurred at a small fortification or set of trenches where some Englishmen rallied and seriously wounded Eustace of Boulogne before being defeated by the Normans.<ref name=Gravett80>Gravett ''Hastings'' p. 80</ref>

===Reasons for the outcome===

Harold's defeat was probably due to several circumstances. One was the need to defend against two almost simultaneous invasions. Harold's dismissal of his forces in southern England on 8 September also contributed to the defeat. Many historians fault Harold for hurrying south and not gathering more forces before confronting William at Hastings, although it is not clear that the English forces were insufficient to deal with William's forces.<ref name=Lawson217/> However, the length of the battle, which lasted an entire day, shows that the English forces were not tired by their long march.<ref name=Huscroft130>Huscroft ''Norman Conquest'' p. 130</ref> Tied in with the speed of Harold's advance to Hastings is the possibility Harold may not have trusted Edwin and Morcar once Tostig had been defeated, and declined to bring them and their forces south.<ref name=Lawson217/> Modern historians have pointed out that one reason for Harold's rush to battle was to contain William's depredations and keep him from breaking free of his [[beachhead]].<ref name=Marren152>Marren ''1066'' p. 152</ref>

Most of the blame for the defeat probably lies in the events of the battle.<ref name=Lawson217>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 217–218</ref> William was the more experienced military leader,<ref name=Lawson219/> and in addition, the lack of cavalry on the English side allowed Harold fewer tactical options.<ref name=Huscroft130/> Some writers have criticised Harold for not exploiting the opportunity offered by the rumoured death of William early in the battle.<ref name=Walker180>Walker ''Harold'' pp. 180–181</ref> The English appear to have erred in not staying strictly on the defensive, for when they pursued the retreating Normans they exposed their flanks to attack. Whether this was due to the inexperience of the English commanders or the indiscipline of the English soldiers is unclear.<ref name=Lawson219>Lawson ''Battle of Hastings'' pp. 219–220</ref>{{efn|Modern [[wargaming]] has demonstrated the correctness of not pursuing the fleeing Normans,<ref name=Marren152/> with the historian [[Christopher Gravett]] stating that if in a wargame he allowed Harold to pursue the Normans, his opponent "promptly, and rightly, punished such rashness with a brisk counter-attack with proved to be the turning point of the battle&nbsp;– just as in 1066".<ref name=QMarren152>Quoted in Marren ''1066'' p. 152</ref>}} In the end, Harold's death appears to have been decisive, as it signalled the break-up of the English forces in disarray.<ref name=Huscroft130/> Historian [[David Nicolle]] states that William's army "demonstrated&nbsp;– not without difficulty&nbsp;– the superiority of Norman-French mixed cavalry and infantry tactics over the Germanic-Scandinavian infantry traditions of the Anglo-Saxons."<ref name=Normans20>Nicolle ''Normans'' p. 20</ref>