Editing Andrew Jackson (section)

==Military career==
{{Infobox military person
| width_style   = person
| name          = Military campaigns<br> of Andrew Jackson
| image         = Andrew Jackson 1819 by Rembrandt Peale (Maryland Historical Society BCLM-CA.679).webp
| image_upright = 1
| alt           = Gray-haired man in army uniform with epaulettes
| caption       = Portrait of Jackson, painted by [[Rembrandt Peale]] in Washington, D.C. in 1819
| module        = {{OSM Location map
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| title =
| caption = {{legend|#117733|[[Creek War]]}}{{legend|#882255|[[War of 1812]]}}{{legend|#999933|[[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]}}

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| label1 =
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|34.5657|-80.6617}}
| mark-title1 = [[Battle of Hanging Rock]] ([[American Revolutionary War|Revolutionary War]]): August 6, 1780; [[Thomas Sumter|General Thomas Sumter]], commander
| mark-description1 = [[Battle of Hanging Rock]]
| shape-color1 = #332288
| label-color1 = #332288

| label2 =
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|33.8123|-85.9069}}
| mark-title2 = [[Battle of Tallushatchee]] ([[Red Stick War]]): November 3, 1813; Brigadier General [[John Coffee]], commander
| mark-description2 = [[Battle of Tallushatchee]]
| shape-color2 = #117733
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| label3 =Talladega
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| mark-coord3 = {{coord|33.4509|-86.1688}}
| mark-title3 = [[Battle of Talladega]] ([[Red Stick War]]): November 9, 1813
| mark-description3 = [[Battle of Talladega]]
| shape-color3 =  #117733
| label-color3 =  black

| label4 =
| mark-coord4 = {{coord|33.01889|-85.70472}}
| mark-title4 = [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek|Battle of Emuckfaw]] ([[Red Stick War]]): on January 22, 1814
| mark-description4 = [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek|Emuckfaw]]
| shape-color4 =  #117733
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| label5 = Emuckfaw and
| labela5 = Enotachopo Creek
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| mark-coord5 = {{coord|33.07822|-85.8817}}
| mark-title5 = [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek|Battle of Enatachopo Creek]] ([[Red Stick War]]): January 24, 1814
| mark-description5 = [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek|Enotachopa]]
| shape-color5 = #117733
| label-color5 =  black
| mark-size5=0

| label6 = Horseshoe Bend
| label-pos6= left|jdx6=-2
|label-offset-y6=5
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| mark-coord6 = {{coord|32.98222|-85.735278}}
| mark-title6 = [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]] ([[Red Stick War]]): March 27, 1814
| mark-description6 = [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]]
| shape-color6 = #117733
| label-color6 = black
|mark-size6= 7

| label7 = Pensacola
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| mark-coord7 = {{coord|30.433333| -87.2}}
| mark-title7 = [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Battle of Pensacola]] ([[Red Stick War]]): November 7–9, 1814
| mark-description7 = [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Battle of Pensacola]]
| shape-color7 = #117733
| label-color7 = black
| mark-size7 = 7
|label-offset-y7=-8
|label-offset-x7=-2

| label8 =
| mark-coord8 = {{coord|30.228056|-88.023056}}
| mark-title8 = [[Fort Bowyer]] (War of 1812): October–November 1429; September 15, 1814; Major William Lawrence, commander
| mark-description8 = [[Fort Bowyer]]
| shape-color8 = #882255
| label-color8 = black
| mark-size8 = 0

| label9 = New
| labela9= Orleans
| label-pos9=top
| label-offset-x9= 0
| mark-coord9 = {{coord|29.9425|-89.990833}}
| mark-title9 = [[Battle of New Orleans]] (War of 1812): October–November 1429
| mark-description9 = [[Battle of New Orleans]]
| shape-color9 = #882255
| label-color9 = black
| mark-size9 = 10

| label10 =
| mark-coord10 = {{coord|29.933333|-85.016667}}
| mark-title10 = [[Negro Fort]] ([[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]): July 1816; Brevet Major General [[Edmund P. Gaines|Edmund Gaines]], commander
| mark-description10 = [[Negro Fort]]
| shape-color10 = #999933
| mark-size10 = 0

| label11 = St. Marks
| label-size11 = 9
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| mark-coord11 = {{coord|30.155|-84.211}}
| mark-title11 = [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park|St. Marks]] ([[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]): Captured April 1818
| mark-description11 = [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park|St. Marks]]
| shape-color11 = #999933
| label-color11 = black
|label-offset-x11= 15
|label-offset-y11= 2

| mark-coord12 = {{coord|30.347839| -87.297561}}
| mark-title12 = [[Siege of Fort Barrancas#First battles under U.S. control|Siege of Barrancas]]: ([[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]): May 1818. The Spanish surrender Pensacola.
| mark-description12 = [[Siege of Fort Barrancas#First battles under U.S. control|Siege of Barrancas]]
| shape-color12 = #999933
|label12= Ft. Barrancas
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| label-color12 = black
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|label-offset-y12= 7

| shape13 = circle
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| mark-coord13 = {{coord|31.987872|-86.571249}}
| mark-title13 = [[Fort Deposit, Alabama|Fort Deposit]]
| mark-description13 = [[Fort Deposit, Alabama|Fort Deposit]]- Jackson's supply depot for Southern Alabama
| shape-color13 = black
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| shape14 = circle
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| mark-coord14 = {{coord|33.763611| -86.0475}}
| mark-title14 = [[Fort Strother]]- Jackson's supply depot for Northern Alabama
| mark-description14 = [[Fort Strother]]
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| shape15 = circle
| label15 = Mobile
| label-pos15=top
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| mark-title15 = [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]
| mark-description15 = [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]
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| shape16 = circle
| label16 = Nashville
| label-pos16 = bottom
| mark-coord16 = {{coord|36.162222| -86.774444}}
| mark-title16 = [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]
| mark-description16 = [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]
| shape-color16 = black
| label-color16 = black
| mark-size16 = 10

| shape17 = circle
| label17 =
| mark-coord17 = {{coord|31.1805| -87.838}}
| mark-title17 = [[Fort Mims massacre|Fort Mims]]: August 30, 1813, Major Daniel Beasely, Commander. Attack on white settlers and their Creek allies by Red Sticks. Second incident that triggered the [[Red Stick War]].
| mark-description17 = [[Fort Mims massacre|Fort Mims]]
| shape-color17 = black
| mark-size17 = 0

| shape18 = circle
| label18 =
| mark-coord18 = {{coord|31.18957|-87.12587}}
| mark-title18 = [[Battle of Burnt Corn]]- July 27, 1813; Colonel James Caller, commander. Attack on Red Sticks by U. S. forces. First incident triggering the [[Red Stick War]].
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}}
}}

===War of 1812===
On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom, launching the [[War of 1812]].{{sfn|Hickey|1989|p=46}} Though the war was primarily [[Origins of the War of 1812|caused]] by maritime issues,{{sfn|Hickey|1989|p=72}} it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] resistance to settlement, undermine British support of the Native American tribes,{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=175}} and pry [[Florida]] from the [[Spanish Empire]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=166}}

Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military [[War of 1812#Invasions of Canada, 1812|was repeatedly defeated]] in the [[Old Northwest|American Northwest]]. After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=173}} who were ordered to head to [[New Orleans]] to defend against a British attack.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=179}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.17400200/?sp=1 |title=General orders .... Andrew Jackson. Major-General 2d Division, Tennessee. November 24, 1812. |publisher=Jackson Papers, LOC |access-date=June 27, 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=23–25}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/maj.03120/?sp=1&st=text |title=Journal of trip down the Mississippi River, January 1813 to March 1813 |last=Jackson |first=Andrew |date=January 10, 1813 |publisher=Jackson Papers, LOC |access-date=July 3, 2017}}</ref> When his forces arrived at [[Natchez, Mississippi|Natchez]], they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], [[John Armstrong Jr.|John Armstrong]], stating that his [[Natchez Expedition]] volunteers were not needed,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=22–23}} and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=184}} Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname "[[Hickory]]" (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=23}}

After returning to Nashville, Jackson and three of his kinsmen, [[John Coffee]], [[Stockley D. Hays]], and Alexander Donelson, got into a tavern brawl over honor with the brothers [[Jesse Benton Jr.|Jesse]] and [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas Hart Benton]]. Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=23}}

====Creek War====
{{Further|Creek War}}

Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor [[Willie Blount]] called out the militia in September 1813 following the August [[Fort Mims Massacre]].{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=61–62}} The [[Red Sticks]], a [[Creek Confederacy]] faction that had allied with [[Tecumseh]], a [[Shawnee]] chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at [[Battle of Burnt Corn|Burnt Corn Creek]].{{sfnm|Davis|2002|1pp=631–632|Owsley|1981|2pp=38–39}}

Jackson's objective was to destroy the Red Sticks.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=40}} He headed south from [[Fayetteville, Tennessee|Fayetteville]], Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing [[Fort Strother]] as his supply base.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=192–193}} He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=197}}{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=63–64}} Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the [[Battle of Tallushatchee]] on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at the [[Battle of Talladega]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=196–197}}

By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers,{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=72–73}} but he continued the offensive.{{sfn|Kanon|1999|p=4}} The Red Sticks counterattacked at the [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek]]. Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=75–76}} Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of a regular army unit, the [[39th Infantry Regiment (War of 1812)|39th U.S. Infantry Regiment]]. The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the [[Tallapoosa River]], which was manned by about 1,000 men.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=79}} The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred.{{sfn|Kanon|1999|p=4–10}} Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies.{{sfn|Kanon|1999|p=4–10}} The victory broke the power of the Red Sticks.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=81}} Jackson continued his [[scorched-earth]] campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies,{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=81}} and starving Red Stick women and children.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=220}} The campaign ended when [[William Weatherford]], the Red Stick leader, surrendered,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=27}} although some Red Sticks fled to [[East Florida]].{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=87}}

On June 8, Jackson was appointed a [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in the United States Army, and 10 days later was made a [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] [[Major general (United States)|major general]] with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=222}} With President [[James Madison]]'s approval, Jackson imposed the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]]. The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender {{convert|23,000,000|acres|ha|abbr=on}} of land to the United States.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=26}}

Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of [[West Florida]], [[Mateo González Manrique]], of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=236–237}} The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their four warships were repulsed at [[Fort Bowyer#First battle|Fort Bowyer]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=238}} Jackson then entered Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Battle of Pensacola]] on November 7.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=116–117}} Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered, and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the [[Lower Mississippi River]] and control of the American West.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=28}} He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened the garrison at Mobile,{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=118}} and led his troops to New Orleans.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=244–245}}

====Battle of New Orleans====
{{Further|Battle of New Orleans}}
:[[File:HNOC 1958.98.6 - Battle of New Orleans.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5| Colored [[wood engraving]] of Jackson rallying the troops, from ''Ballou's Pictorial Drawing Room Companion'', 1856 (Historic New Orleans Collection)|alt=diverse men in frontier outfits with their backs to the viewer, facing ranks of British soldiers marching towards them.]]

Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=247}} There he instituted [[martial law]] because he worried about the loyalty of the city's [[Louisiana Creole people|Creole]] and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with [[Jean Lafitte]]'s smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=29}} paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=254}} This gave Jackson a force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=274}}

The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=138}} Admiral [[Alexander Cochrane]] was the overall commander of the operation;{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=134, 136}} General [[Edward Pakenham]] commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=29–30}} As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=268–269}} The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their [[parapets]], and the attack ended in disaster.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=31–32}} The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 71.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=285}}

The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=169}} Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion.{{sfn|Tregle|1981|p=337}} Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=309}} and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge [[Dominic Augustin Hall|Dominic A. Hall]] signed a writ of ''[[habeas corpus]]'' for Louaillier's release. Jackson had [[Arrest of Dominic Hall and Louis Louaillier|Hall arrested]] too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city.{{sfn|Tregle|1981|pp=377–378}} Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the [[Treaty of Ghent]], which ended the war with the British, had been signed,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=312}} his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans.{{sfn|Tregle|1981|p=378–379}}

Jackson's victory made him a national hero,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=29–33}} and on February 27, 1815, he was given the [[Thanks of Congress]] and awarded a [[Congressional Gold Medal]].<ref name="US Congress Bio">{{cite web|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=j000005|title=Andrew Jackson|publisher=Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress|access-date=April 13, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218110615/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=J000005|archive-date=December 18, 2013}}</ref> Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought,{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=32}} Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=178–179}}

===First Seminole War===
{{Further|Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|Rhea letter|label1=First Seminole War}}
[[File:Ambristertrial.jpg|thumb|An 1846 [[wood engraving]] by [[William Croome]] of the trial of [[Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident|Robert Ambrister]]  in ''Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson'' by John Frost|alt=Two soldiers stand trial. Several other men gather around.]]

Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=321}} Appointed as Indian commissioner plenipotentiary, Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command.{{Sfn|Remini|1977|p=322, 325–326}} Despite resistance from Secretary of the Treasury [[William H. Crawford|William Crawford]], he negotiated and signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the [[Treaty of Turkeytown]], [[Treaty of Tuscaloosa]], and the [[Treaty of Doak's Stand]].{{sfn|Clark|Guice|1996|pp=233–243}}{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=36}}

Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at [[Negro Fort|Prospect Bluff]], which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than a thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped [[runaway slaves|slaves]], and various indigenous peoples.{{sfn|Wright|1968|p=569}} It had become a magnet for escapees{{sfn|Wright|1968|p=569}} and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers,{{sfn|Porter|1951|pp=261–262}} even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|p=26}} Jackson ordered Colonel [[Duncan Lamont Clinch|Duncan Clinch]] to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of the garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|pp=28–30}}

White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the [[Seminole]]s, who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|pp=32–33}} In December 1817, Secretary of War [[John C. Calhoun]] initiated the [[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]] by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct the war as he may think best".{{sfn|Mahon|1998|p=64}} Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Spain]] once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President [[James Monroe]], "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished."{{sfn|Ogg|1919|p=66}}

Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park#History|St. Marks]], and occupied [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]. Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two [[British subject]]s, [[Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident|Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot]], who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing an [[international incident]] with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain.{{sfn|Mahon|1998|pp=65–67}} Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution, since the United States had not [[Declaration of war by the United States|declared war]] on Spain. [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=38–39}} In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson,{{sfn|Heidler|1993|p=518}} and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign the [[Treaty of Moultrie Creek]] in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida.{{sfn|Mahon|1962|pp=350–354}}