Editing Ancient Greek philosophy (section)

== Classical Greek philosophy<!--'Classical Greek philosophy' redirects here--> ==

=== Socrates ===
{{Main|Socrates}}
[[File:British Museum - Four Greek philosophers.jpg|thumb|left|Four Greek philosophers: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus; British Museum]]
[[Socrates]], believed to have been born in Athens in the [[Fifth-century Athens|5th century BC]], marks a watershed in ancient Greek philosophy. Athens was a center of learning, with sophists and philosophers traveling from across Greece to teach rhetoric, astronomy, cosmology, and geometry.

While philosophy was an established pursuit prior to Socrates, [[Cicero]] credits him as "the first who brought philosophy down from the heavens, placed it in cities, introduced it into families, and obliged it to examine into life and morals, and good and evil."<ref>[[Cicero|Marcus Tullius Cicero]], ''[[Tusculan Disputations]]'', V 10–11 (or V IV).</ref> By this account he would be considered the founder of [[political philosophy]].<ref>Leo Strauss, ''Natural Right and History'' (Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1953), 120.</ref> The reasons for this turn toward political and ethical subjects remain the object of much study.<ref>Seth Benardete, ''The Argument of the Action'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 277–96.</ref><ref>Laurence Lampert, ''How Philosophy Became Socratic'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010).</ref>

The fact that many conversations involving Socrates (as recounted by Plato and [[Xenophon]]) end without having reached a firm conclusion, or [[aporia|aporetically]],<ref>Cf. [[Plato]], [[The Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']] 336c & 337a, [[Theaetetus (dialogue)|''Theaetetus'']] 150c, [[Apology (Plato)|''Apology of Socrates'']] 23a; [[Xenophon]], [[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|''Memorabilia'']] 4.4.9; [[Aristotle]], ''[[Sophistical Refutations]]'' 183b7.</ref> has stimulated debate over the meaning of the [[Socratic method]].<ref>[[W.K.C. Guthrie]], ''The Greek Philosophers'' (London: Methuen, 1950), 73–75.</ref> Socrates is said to have pursued this probing question-and-answer style of examination on a number of topics, usually attempting to arrive at a defensible and attractive definition of a [[virtue]].

While Socrates' recorded conversations rarely provide a definite answer to the question under examination, several maxims or paradoxes for which he has become known recur. Socrates taught that no one desires what is bad, and so if anyone does something that truly is bad, it must be unwillingly or out of ignorance; consequently, all virtue is knowledge.<ref>[[Terence Irwin]], ''The Development of Ethics'', vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press 2007), 14</ref><ref>Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", ''Philosophical Review'' 73 (1964): 147–64, 147.</ref> He frequently remarks on his own ignorance (claiming that he does not know what courage is, for example). [[Plato]] presents him as distinguishing himself from the common run of mankind by the fact that, while they know nothing noble and good, they do not ''know'' that they do not know, whereas Socrates knows and acknowledges that he knows nothing noble and good.<ref>[[Apology (Plato)|''Apology of Socrates'']] 21d.</ref>

The great statesman [[Pericles]] was closely associated with this new learning and a friend of [[Anaxagoras]], however, and his political opponents struck at him by taking advantage of a conservative reaction against the philosophers; it became a crime to investigate the things above the heavens or below the earth, subjects considered impious. Anaxagoras is said to have been charged and to have fled into exile when Socrates was about twenty years of age.<ref>Debra Nails, ''The People of Plato'' (Indianapolis:  Hackett, 2002), 24.</ref> There is a story that [[Protagoras]], too, was forced to flee and that the Athenians burned his books.<ref>Nails, ''People of Plato'', 256.</ref> Socrates, however, is the only subject recorded as charged under this law, convicted, and sentenced to death in 399 BC (see [[Trial of Socrates]]). In the version of his [[Apology (Plato)|defense speech]] presented by Plato, he claims that it is the envy he arouses on account of his being a philosopher that will convict him.

Numerous subsequent philosophical movements were inspired by Socrates or his younger associates. Plato casts Socrates as the main interlocutor in his [[Plato#Works|dialogues]], deriving from them the basis of [[Platonism]] (and by extension, [[Neoplatonism]]). Plato's student [[Aristotle]] in turn criticized and built upon the doctrines he ascribed to Socrates and Plato, forming the foundation of [[Aristotelianism]]. [[Antisthenes]] founded the school that would come to be known as [[Cynicism (philosophy)|Cynicism]] and accused Plato of distorting Socrates' teachings. [[Zeno of Citium]] in turn adapted the ethics of Cynicism to articulate [[Stoicism]]. [[Epicurus]] studied with Platonic and [[Pyrrhonism|Pyrrhonist]] teachers before renouncing all previous philosophers (including [[Democritus]], on whose atomism the [[Epicurean]] philosophy relies). The philosophic movements that were to dominate the intellectual life of the [[Roman Empire]] were thus born in this febrile period following Socrates' activity, and either directly or indirectly influenced by him. They were also absorbed by the expanding Muslim world in the 7th through 10th centuries AD, from which they returned to the West as foundations of [[Medieval philosophy]] and the [[Renaissance]], as discussed below.

=== Plato ===
{{Main|Plato}}
Plato was an [[Classical Athens|Athenian]] of the generation after [[Socrates]]. Ancient tradition ascribes thirty-six dialogues and thirteen [[Epistles (Plato)|letters]] to him, although of these only twenty-four of the dialogues are now universally recognized as authentic; most modern scholars believe that at least twenty-eight dialogues and two of the letters were in fact written by Plato, although all of the thirty-six dialogues have some defenders.<ref>John M. Cooper, ed., ''Complete Works'', by Plato (Indianapolis:  Hackett, 1997), v–vi, viii–xii, 1634–35.</ref> A further nine dialogues are ascribed to Plato but were considered spurious even in antiquity.<ref>Cooper, ed., ''Complete Works'', by Plato, v–vi, viii–xii.</ref>

Plato's dialogues feature Socrates, although not always as the leader of the conversation. (One dialogue, the [[Laws (Plato)|''Laws'']], instead contains an "Athenian Stranger".) Along with [[Xenophon]], Plato is the primary source of information about Socrates' life and beliefs and it is not always easy to distinguish between the two. While the Socrates presented in the dialogues is often taken to be Plato's mouthpiece, Socrates' reputation for [[irony]], his caginess regarding his own opinions in the dialogues, and his occasional absence from or minor role in the conversation serve to conceal Plato's doctrines.<ref>[[Leo Strauss]], ''The City and Man'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964), 50–51.</ref> Much of what is said about his doctrines is derived from what Aristotle reports about them.

The political doctrine ascribed to Plato is derived from the [[The Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']], the [[Laws (dialogue)|''Laws'']], and the [[Statesman (dialogue)|''Statesman'']]. The first of these contains the suggestion that there will not be justice in cities unless they are ruled by [[philosopher king]]s; those responsible for enforcing the laws are compelled to hold their women, children, and property in [[communism|common]]; and the individual is taught to pursue the common good through [[noble lie]]s; the ''Republic'' says that such a city is likely impossible, however, generally assuming that philosophers would refuse to rule and the people would refuse to compel them to do so.<ref name="Strauss Plato">Leo Strauss, "Plato", in ''History of Political Philosophy'', ed. Leo Strauss and Joseph Cropsey, 3rd ed. (Chicago:  University of Chicago Press 1987): 33–89.</ref>

Whereas the ''Republic'' is premised on a distinction between the sort of knowledge possessed by the philosopher and that possessed by the king or political man, Socrates explores only the character of the philosopher; in the ''Statesman'', on the other hand, a participant referred to as the Eleatic Stranger discusses the sort of knowledge possessed by the political man, while Socrates listens quietly.<ref name="Strauss Plato" /> Although rule by a wise man would be preferable to rule by law, the wise cannot help but be judged by the unwise, and so in practice, rule by law is deemed necessary.

Both the ''Republic'' and the ''Statesman'' reveal the limitations of politics, raising the question of what political order would be best given those constraints; that question is addressed in the ''Laws'', a dialogue that does not take place in Athens and from which Socrates is absent.<ref name="Strauss Plato" /> The character of the society described there is eminently conservative, a corrected or liberalized [[timocracy]] on the [[Sparta#Classical Sparta|Spartan]] or [[History of Crete#Classical, Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine and Arab Crete|Cretan]] model or that of pre-democratic [[Classical Athens|Athens]].<ref name="Strauss Plato" />

Plato's dialogues also have [[metaphysics|metaphysical]] themes, the most famous of which is his [[theory of forms]]. It holds that non-material abstract (but [[ousia|substantial]]) forms (or ideas), and not the material world of change known to us through our physical senses, possess the highest and most fundamental kind of reality. He argued extensively in the ''[[Phaedo]]'', ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', and ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' for the immortality of the soul, and he believed specifically in [[reincarnation]].<ref>See [[Kamtekar, Rachana]]. “The Soul’s (After-) Life,” ''Ancient Philosophy'' 36 (2016): 1–18.</ref>

Plato often uses long-form [[analogies]] (usually [[allegories]]) to explain his ideas; the most famous is perhaps the [[Allegory of the Cave]]. It likens most humans to people tied up in a cave, who look only at shadows on the walls and have no other conception of reality.<ref>{{cite web |title=Plato – Allegory of the cave |website=classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com |url=http://classicalastrologer.files.wordpress.com/2012/12/plato-allegory-of-the-cave.pdf}}</ref> If they turned around, they would see what is casting the shadows (and thereby gain a further dimension to their reality). If some left the cave, they would see the outside world illuminated by the sun (representing the ultimate form of goodness and truth). If these travelers then re-entered the cave, the people inside (who are still only familiar with the shadows) would not be equipped to believe reports of this 'outside world'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Allegory of the Cave |work=washington.edu |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/cave.htm}}</ref> This story explains the theory of forms with their different levels of reality, and advances the view that philosopher-kings are wisest while most humans are ignorant.<ref>{{cite web |last=Kemerling |first=Garth |title=Plato: The Republic 5–10 |work=philosophypages.com |url=http://www.philosophypages.com/hy/2h.htm}}</ref> One student of Plato, [[Aristotle]], who would become another of the most influential philosophers of all time, stressed the implication that understanding relies upon first-hand observation.

=== Aristotle ===
{{Main|Aristotle}}
{{See also|Aristotelianism}}
Aristotle moved to Athens from his native [[Stageira]] in 367 BC and began to study philosophy (perhaps even rhetoric, under [[Isocrates]]), eventually enrolling at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]].<ref name="Lord Intro">Carnes Lord, Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle (Chicago:  University of Chicago Press, 1984): 1–29.</ref> He left Athens approximately twenty years later to study [[botany]] and [[zoology]], became a tutor of [[Alexander the Great]], and ultimately returned to Athens a decade later to establish his own school: the [[Lyceum (classical)|Lyceum]].<ref name="Russell">[[Bertrand Russell]], ''A History of Western Philosophy'' (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972).</ref> At least twenty-nine of his treatises have survived, known as the ''[[corpus Aristotelicum]]'', and address a variety of subjects including [[logic]], [[physics]], [[optics]], [[metaphysics]], [[ethics]], [[rhetoric]], [[politics]], [[poetry]], botany, and zoology.

Aristotle is often portrayed as disagreeing with his teacher Plato (e.g., in [[Raphael]]'s [[School of Athens]]). He criticizes the [[regime]]s described in Plato's [[Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']] and [[Laws (dialogue)|''Laws'']],<ref name=":0">Aristotle, [[Politics (Aristotle)|''Politics'']], bk. 2, ch. 1–6.</ref> and refers to the [[theory of forms]] as "empty words and poetic metaphors".<ref>Aristotle, [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|''Metaphysics'']], 991a20–22.</ref> He is generally presented as giving greater weight to empirical observation and practical concerns.

Aristotle's fame was not great during the [[Hellenistic period]], when [[Stoicism|Stoic]] logic was in vogue, but later [[Peripatetic school|peripatetic]] commentators popularized his work, which eventually contributed heavily to Islamic, Jewish, and medieval Christian philosophy.<ref>Robin Smith, "[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Aristotle's Logic]," ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'' (2007).</ref> His influence was such that [[Avicenna]] referred to him simply as "the Master"; [[Maimonides]], [[Alfarabi]], [[Averroes]], and [[Aquinas]] as "the Philosopher".

Aristotle opposed the utopian style of theorizing, deciding to rely on the understood and observed behaviors of people in reality to formulate his theories. Stemming from an underlying moral assumption that life is valuable, the philosopher makes a point that scarce resources ought to be responsibly allocated to reduce poverty and death. This 'fear of goods' led Aristotle to exclusively support 'natural' trades in which personal satiation was kept at natural limit of consumption.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Kishtainy|first=Niall|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/979259190|title=A little history of economics : revised version|date=January 2017 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-20636-4|oclc=979259190}}</ref> 'Unnatural' trade, as opposed to the intended limit, was classified as the acquisition of wealth to attain more wealth instead of to purchase more goods.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Reynard|first1=H.|last2=Gray|first2=Alexander|date=December 1931|title=The Development of Economic Doctrine.|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2224006|journal=The Economic Journal|volume=41|issue=164|pages=636|doi=10.2307/2224006|jstor=2224006|issn=0013-0133}}</ref> Cutting more along the grain of reality, Aristotle did not only set his mind on how to give people direction to make the right choices but wanted each person equipped with the tools to perform this moral duty. In his own words, "Property should be in a certain sense common, but, as a general rule, private; for, when everyone has a distinct interest, men will not complain of one another, and they will make more progress because everyone will be attending to his own business... And further, there is the greatest pleasure in doing a kindness or service to friends or guests or companions, which can only be rendered when a man has private property. These advantages are lost by excessive unification of the state."<ref name=":0" />

=== Cynicism ===
{{Main|Cynicism (philosophy)}}
Cynicism was founded by [[Antisthenes]], who was a disciple of Socrates, as well as [[Diogenes]], his contemporary.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|p=99}} Their aim was to live according to nature and against convention.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|p=99}} Antisthenes was inspired by the ascetism of Socrates, and accused Plato of pride and conceit.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|p=100}} Diogenes, his follower, took the ideas to their limit, living in extreme poverty and engaging in anti-social behaviour. [[Crates of Thebes]] was, in turn, inspired by Diogenes to give away his fortune and live on the streets of Athens.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|p=102}}

=== Cyrenaicism ===
{{Main|Cyrenaics}}
The [[Cyrenaics]] were founded by [[Aristippus]] of Cyrene, who was a pupil of [[Socrates]]. The Cyrenaics were [[hedonists]] and held that pleasure was the supreme good in life, especially physical pleasure, which they thought more intense and more desirable than mental pleasures.<ref name="annas231">{{Cite book |last=Annas |first=Julia |author-link=Julia Annas |year=1995 |title=The Morality of Happiness |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-509652-5 |page=231}}</ref> Pleasure is the only good in life and pain is the only evil. [[Socrates]] had held that [[virtue]] was the only human good, but he had also accepted a limited role for its utilitarian side, allowing pleasure to be a secondary goal of moral action.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Reale |first1=Giovanni |last2=Catan
 |first2=John R. |year=1986 |title=A History of Ancient Philosophy: From the Origins to Socrates |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=0-88706-290-3 |page=271}}</ref> Aristippus and his followers seized upon this, and made pleasure the sole final goal of life, denying that virtue had any intrinsic value.

=== Megarians ===
{{Main|Megarian school}}
The [[Megarian school]] flourished in the 4th century BC. It was founded by [[Euclides of Megara]], one of the pupils of [[Socrates]]. Its ethical teachings were derived from Socrates, recognizing a single [[Form of the Good|good]], which was apparently combined with the [[Eleatic]] doctrine of [[monism|Unity]]. Their work on [[modal logic]], [[logical conditional]]s, and [[propositional logic]] played an important role in the development of logic in antiquity, and were influences on the subsequent creation of [[Stoicism]] and [[Pyrrhonism]].