Editing African diaspora (section)

== The Americas ==
{{Main|African diaspora in the Americas}}
{{See also|Afro-Brazilians|Maroons}}
[[File:Neger_und_Negermischlinge.JPG|thumb|Map of the Black African population in the Americas (1901).]]

* [[African Americans]] – There are an estimated 43&nbsp;million people of black African descent in the United States.
* [[Afro-Latin Americans]] – An estimation from the Pew Research Center calculates about 100&nbsp; million people of African descent living in Latin America.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=López |first1=Gustavo |last2=Gonzalez-Barrera |first2=Ana |title=Afro-Latino: A deeply rooted identity among U.S. Hispanics |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/03/01/afro-latino-a-deeply-rooted-identity-among-u-s-hispanics/ |access-date=May 22, 2022 |website=Pew Research Center |date=March 2016 |language=en-US}}</ref> It's important to note, however, that the racial classification criteria used in the US can differ markedly from the racial classification criteria used in other countries in the region and from how other populations perceive their own racial identification.<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/brazil/ |title = Brazil |website = The World Factbook |date = December 15, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pena|first1=Sérgio D. J.|last2=Pietro|first2=Giuliano Di|last3=Fuchshuber-Moraes|first3=Mateus|last4=Genro|first4=Julia Pasqualini|last5=Hutz|first5=Mara H.|last6=Kehdy|first6=Fernanda de Souza Gomes|last7=Kohlrausch|first7=Fabiana|last8=Magno|first8=Luiz Alexandre Viana|last9=Montenegro|first9=Raquel Carvalho|last10=Moraes|first10=Manoel Odorico|last11=Moraes|first11=Maria Elisabete Amaral de|date=February 16, 2011|title=The Genomic Ancestry of Individuals from Different Geographical Regions of Brazil Is More Uniform Than Expected|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=6|issue=2|pages=e17063|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0017063|pmid=21359226|pmc=3040205|bibcode=2011PLoSO...617063P|issn=1932-6203|doi-access=free}}</ref> There are also sizeable African-descended populations in [[Cuba]], [[Haiti]], [[Colombia]] and [[Dominican Republic]], often with ancestry of other major ethnic groups.
* [[Afro-Caribbeans]] – The population in the [[Caribbean]] is approximately 23&nbsp;million. Significant numbers of African-descended people include [[Haiti]] – 8&nbsp;million, [[Dominican Republic]] – 7.9&nbsp;million, and [[Jamaica]] – 2.7&nbsp;million,<ref>{{cite web |url = https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WPP2004/World_Population_2004_chart.pdf |title = World Population 2004 chart, UN |publisher = United Nations |access-date = September 2, 2017 }}</ref>

=== Caribbean ===
{{Main|Afro-Caribbean}}
[[File:Cards and the Loser with the Peg (7664363298).jpg|alt=Several elderly men sitting around a table playing cards|thumb|Haiti has the largest Afro-Caribbean population (almost 11 million) and also has the highest percentage of its population descended from the African diaspora (95%).]]
The first Africans in the Americas arrived in the region during the initial period of [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonization]]. In 1492, [[Afro-Spaniards|Afro-Spanish]] sailor [[Pedro Alonso Niño]] served as a [[Maritime pilot|pilot]] on the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]]; though he returned to the Americas in 1499, Niño did not settle in the region.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Clark|first=J.M.H.|date=June 1, 2016|title=Niño, Pedro Alonso|url=https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74670|url-access=limited|url-status=live|access-date=March 26, 2021|website=Oxford African American Studies Center|publisher=Oxford University Press|language=en|doi=10.1093/acref/9780195301731.013.74670|isbn=978-0-19-530173-1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222194811/https://oxfordaasc.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195301731.001.0001/acref-9780195301731-e-74670 |archive-date=February 22, 2021 }}</ref> By the early 16th century, more Africans began to arrive in [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonies in the Americas]], sometimes as [[free people of color]], but the majority were [[Slavery in colonial Spanish America|enslaved]]. Demand of African labor increased as the [[indigenous population of the Americas]] experienced a [[Population history of indigenous peoples of the Americas|massive population decline]] due to the introduction of Eurasian [[infectious disease]]s (such as [[smallpox]]) to which they had no [[Immunity (medical)|natural immunity]]. The [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]] granted ''[[Asiento de negros|asientos]]'' (monopoly contracts) to merchants granting them the right to supply enslaved Africans in to Spanish colonies in the Americas, regulating the trade. As other European nations began establishing colonies in the Americas, these new colonies began importing enslaved Africans as well.<ref>Foner, Laura, and Eugene D. Genovese, eds. ''Slavery in the New World: A Reader in Comparative History''. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice Hall, 1969.</ref>

During the 17th and 18th centuries, most European colonies in the Caribbean operated on [[Plantation economy|plantation economies]] fueled by slave labor, and the resulting importation of enslaved Africans meant that [[Afro-Caribbeans]] soon far outnumbered their European enslavers in terms of population.<ref name="AA">[[Stephen D. Behrendt]], David Richardson, and David Eltis, [[W. E. B. Du Bois Institute]] for African and African-American Research, [[Harvard University]]. Based on "records for 27,233 voyages that set out to obtain slaves for the Americas". {{cite book |author = Stephen Behrendt |title = Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |year = 1999 |publisher = Basic Civitas Books |location = New York |isbn = 978-0-465-00071-5 |chapter = Transatlantic Slave Trade |chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/africanaencyclop00appi }}</ref> Roughly eleven to twelve million enslaved Africans were transported to the Americas as part of the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]].<ref name="Larson, Pier M. 1999 335–62"/>

Beginning in 1791, the [[Haitian Revolution]], a slave rebellion by self-emancipated slaves in the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]] eventually led to the creation of the [[Haiti|Republic of Haiti]]. The new state, led by [[Jean Jacques Dessalines]] was the first nation in the Americas to be established from a successful slave revolt and represented a challenge to the existing slave systems in the region.<ref>Philippe Girard, "Jean-Jacques Dessalines and the Atlantic System: A Reappraisal," William and Mary Quarterly (July 2012).</ref> Continuous waves of [[slave rebellion]]s, such as the [[Baptist War]] led by [[Samuel Sharpe]] in [[Colony of Jamaica|British Jamaica]], created the conditions for the incremental abolition of slavery in the region, with Great Britain abolishing it [[Slavery Abolition Act 1833|in the 1830s]]. The Spanish colony of [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] was the last Caribbean island to emancipate its slaves.<ref>Childs, Matt D. ''1812 Aponte Rebellion in Cuba and the Struggle against Atlantic Slavery'', [[University of North Carolina Press]], 2006, {{ISBN|9780807857724}}</ref>

During the 20th century, Afro-Caribbean people began to assert their cultural, economic and political rights on the world stage. The Jamaican [[Marcus Garvey]] formed the [[UNIA]] movement in the United States, continuing with [[Aimé Césaire]]'s [[négritude]] movement, which was intended to create a pan-African movement across national lines. From the 1960s, the [[decolonization of the Americas]] led to various Caribbean countries gaining their independence from European colonial rule. They were pre-eminent in creating new cultural forms such as [[Calypso music|calypso]], [[reggae music]], and [[Rastafari]] within the Caribbean. Beyond the region, a new Afro-Caribbean diaspora, including such figures as [[Stokely Carmichael]] and [[DJ Kool Herc]] in the United States, was influential in the creation of the [[black power]] and [[hip hop]] movements. Influential political theorists such as [[Walter Rodney]], [[Frantz Fanon]] and [[Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)|Stuart Hall]] contributed to anti-colonial theory and movements in Africa, as well as cultural developments in Europe.

=== North America ===
==== United States ====
{{Main|Black Americans}}
Several migration waves to the Americas, as well as relocations within the Americas, have brought people of African descent to North America. According to the [[Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture]], the first African populations came to North America in the 16th century via [[Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean]] to the Spanish colonies of [[Florida]], [[Texas]] and other parts of the South.<ref name="Schomburg">[[Howard Dodson|Dodson, Howard]], and [[Sylviane Diouf|Sylviane A. Diouf]], eds (2005). [http://www.inmotionaame.org/home.cfm ''In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226154419/http://www.inmotionaame.org/home.cfm |date=February 26, 2011 }}. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library. Retrieved November 24, 2007.</ref> Out of the 12&nbsp;million people from Africa who were shipped to the [[Americas]] during the [[transatlantic slave trade]],<ref>{{cite book |author = Ronald Segal |author-link = Ronald Segal |title = The Black Diaspora: Five Centuries of the Black Experience Outside Africa |year = 1995 |publisher = Farrar, Straus and Giroux |location = New York |isbn = 978-0-374-11396-4 |page = 4 |quote = It is now estimated that 11,863,000 slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. [Note in original: Paul E. Lovejoy, "The Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade on Africa: A Review of the Literature," in ''Journal of African History'' 30 (1989), p. 368.] ... It is widely conceded that further revisions are more likely to be upward than downward.}}</ref> 645,000 were shipped to the [[Thirteen Colonies|British colonies on the North American mainland]] and the [[United States]].<ref name="AA" /> In 2000, African Americans comprised 12.1 percent of the total population in the United States, constituting the largest racial minority group. The African-American population is concentrated in the [[Southern United States|southern states]] and urban areas.<ref>[http://www.censusscope.org/us/map_nhblack.html United States African-American Population]. CensusScope, Social Science Data Analysis Network. Retrieved December 17, 2007.</ref>

In the establishment of the African diaspora, the transatlantic slave trade is often considered the defining element, but people of African descent have engaged in eleven other migration movements involving North America since the 16th century, many being voluntary migrations, although undertaken in exploitative and hostile environments.<ref name="Schomburg" />

In the 1860s, people from [[sub-Saharan Africa]], mainly from [[West Africa]] and the [[Cape Verde Islands]], started to arrive in a voluntary immigration wave to seek employment as [[Whaling|whalers]] in [[Massachusetts]]. This migration continued until restrictive laws were enacted in 1921 that in effect closed the door on non-Europeans. By that time, men of African ancestry were already a majority in [[New England]]'s whaling industry, with African Americans working as sailors, blacksmiths, shipbuilders, officers, and owners. The internationalism of whaling crews, including the character [[Moby-Dick#Daggoo|Daggoo]], an African harpooneer, is recorded in the 1851 novel ''[[Moby-Dick]]''. They eventually took their trade to [[California]].<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061231054329/http://www.whalingmuseum.org/kendall/heros/index_h.html "Heroes in the Ships: African Americans in the Whaling Industry"]. Old Dartmouth Historical Society / New Bedford Whaling Museum, 2001.</ref>

Today 1.7 million people in the United States are descended from voluntary immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa, most of whom arrived in the late twentieth century. African immigrants represent 6 percent of all immigrants to the United States and almost 5 percent of the African-American community nationwide. About 57 percent immigrated between 1990 and 2000.<ref name="Schomburg2">Dodson, Howard and Sylviane A. Diouf, eds (2005). [http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm?migration=13&topic=3&tab=image&bhfv=7&bhfx=&bhpc=0&bhqs=1 "The Immigration Waves: The numbers"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110114001146/http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm?migration=13&topic=3&tab=image&bhfv=7&bhfx=&bhpc=0&bhqs=1 |date=January 14, 2011 }}, ''In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience'', Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library. Retrieved November 24, 2007.</ref> Immigrants born in Africa constitute 1.6 percent of the black population. People of the African immigrant diaspora are the most educated population group in the United States—50 percent have bachelor's or advanced degrees, compared to 23 percent of native-born Americans.<ref>Dodson, Howard and Sylviane A. Diouf, eds (2005). [http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm;jsessionid=f8301649231195914518041?migration=13&topic=4&tab=image&bhfv=7&bhfx=&bhpc=0&bhqs=1 "The Brain Drain".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090506032151/http://www.inmotionaame.org/migrations/topic.cfm;jsessionid=f8301649231195914518041?migration=13&topic=4&tab=image&bhfv=7&bhfx=&bhpc=0&bhqs=1 |date=May 6, 2009 }}</ref><ref>[https://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol17no2/172brain.htm "Reversing Africa's 'brain drain'"], ''In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience''. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture, New York Public Library. Retrieved November 24, 2007.</ref> The largest African immigrant communities in the United States are in [[New York (state)|New York]], followed by [[California]], [[Texas]], and [[Maryland]].<ref name="Schomburg2" />

Due to the legacy of [[slavery in the colonial history of the United States]], the average African American has a significant European component to his DNA.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Bryc|first1=Katarzyna|last2=Durand|first2=Eric Y.|last3=Macpherson|first3=J. Michael|last4=Reich|first4=David|last5=Mountain|first5=Joanna L.|date=January 8, 2015|title=The Genetic Ancestry of African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans across the United States|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=96|issue=1|pages=37–53|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2014.11.010|issn=0002-9297|pmc=4289685|pmid=25529636}}</ref> According to a study conducted in 2011, the African American DNA consists on average of 73.2% West African, 24% European and 0.8% Native American DNA.<ref name=":0" /> The European ancestry of African Americans is largely patrilineal with an estimated 19% of African American ancestors being European males, and 5% being European females.<ref name=":0" /> The interracial mixing occurred before the [[American Civil War|Civil War]] and largely in the [[Southern United States|American South]], beginning during the [[Colonial history of the United States|colonial era]].<ref name=":0" />

The states with the highest percentages of people of African descent are [[Mississippi]] (36%), and [[Louisiana]] (33%). While not a state, the population of the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]] is more than 50% black.<ref>{{cite news |url = https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/dc-politics/dc-where-blacks-are-no-longer-a-majority-has-a-new-african-american-affairs-director/2015/02/04/e8bd65a0-ac8e-11e4-ad71-7b9eba0f87d6_story.html |title = D.C., where blacks are no longer a majority, has a new African American affairs director |date = February 4, 2015 |newspaper = The Washington Post |access-date = February 6, 2016 |author = DeBonis, Mike }}</ref> Recent African immigrants represent a minority of black people nationwide. The U.S. Bureau of the Census categorizes the population by race based on self-identification.<ref>U.S. Census Bureau. [http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_ASR151205.htm State & County QuickFacts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922014505/http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_ASR151205.htm |date=September 22, 2008 }}. Retrieved November 6, 2007.</ref> The census surveys have no provision for a "multiracial" or "biracial" self-identity, but since 2000, respondents may check off more than one box and claim multiple ethnicity that way.

==== Canada ====
{{Main|Black Canadians}}
Much of the earliest black presence in [[Canada]] came from the newly independent [[United States]] after the American Revolution; the British resettled African Americans (known as [[Black Loyalist]]s) primarily in [[Nova Scotia]]. These were primarily former slaves who had escaped to British lines for promised freedom during the Revolution.

Later during the antebellum years, other individual African Americans escaped to Canada, mostly to locations in [[Southwestern Ontario]], via the [[Underground Railroad#Arrival in Canada|Underground Railroad]], a system supported by both blacks and whites to assist fugitive slaves. After achieving independence, northern states in the U.S. had begun to abolish slavery as early as 1793, but slavery was not abolished in the South until 1865, following the [[American Civil War]].

Black immigration to Canada in the twentieth century consisted mostly of Caribbean descent.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The African Diaspora in Canada: negotiating identity & belonging|url=https://archive.org/details/africandiasporac00tett|url-access=limited|last1=Tettey|first1=Wisdom J.|last2=Puplampu|first2=Korbla P.|publisher=University of Calgary Press|year=2005|isbn=978-1-85109-700-5|location=Calgary, Alberta, Canada|pages=[https://archive.org/details/africandiasporac00tett/page/n217 205]}}</ref> As a result of the prominence of Caribbean immigration, the term "African Canadian", while sometimes used to refer to the minority of Canadian blacks who have direct African or African-American heritage, is ''not'' normally used to denote black Canadians. Blacks of Caribbean origin are usually denoted as "West Indian Canadian", "Caribbean Canadian" or more rarely "Afro-Caribbean Canadian", but there remains no widely used alternative to "Black Canadian" which is considered inclusive of the African, Afro-Caribbean, and African-American black communities in Canada.

=== Central America and South America ===
{{Main|Afro-Latin Americans}}
[[File:Merengue Dominicano.jpg|alt=A man and woman in colorful dress dancing|thumb|The racial make-up of the [[Dominican Republic]] includes many [[Afro-Caribbean]]s, [[mestizo]]s, [[Taíno]]-descended persons, and whites.]]
[[File:27 anos da Fundação Cultural Palmares.jpg|alt=Women in white dresses in a semi-circle|thumb|[[Afro-Brazilians]] celebrating at a ceremony held by the [[Ministry of Culture (Brazil)|Ministry of Culture]].]]
At an intermediate level, in [[South America]] and in the former plantations in and around the Indian Ocean, descendants of enslaved people are a bit harder to define because many people are mixed in demographic proportion to the original slave population. In places that imported relatively few slaves (like [[Chile]]), few if any are considered "black" today.<ref>Harry Hoetink, ''Caribbean Race Relations: A Study of Two Variants'' (Lon-don, 1971), xii.</ref> In places that imported many enslaved people (like [[Brazil]] or [[Dominican Republic]]), the number is larger, though most identify themselves as being of mixed, rather than strictly African, ancestry.<ref>Clara E. Rodriguez, "Challenging Racial Hegemony: Puerto Ricans in the United States," in ''Race'', ed. [[Steven Gregory]] and [[Roger Sanjek]] (New Brunswick NJ, 1994), 131–45, 137. See also Frederick P. Bowser, "Colonial Spanish America," in ''Neither Slave Nor Free: The Freedmen of African Descent in the Slave Societies of the New World'', ed. David W. Cohen and Jack P. Greene (Baltimore, 1972), 19–58, 38.</ref> In places like Brazil and the Dominican Republic, blackness is performed in more taboo ways than it is in, say, the United States. The idea behind [[Trey Ellis#Cultural Mulatto|Trey Ellis Cultural Mulatto]] comes into play as there are blurred lines between what is considered as black.

In [[Colombia]], the African slaves were first brought to work in the gold mines of the Department of Antioquia. After this was no longer a profitable business, these slaves slowly moved to the Pacific coast, where they have remained unmixed with the white or Indian population until today. The whole Department of Chocó remains a black area. Mixture with white population happened mainly in the Caribbean coast, which is a [[mestizo]] area until today. There was also a greater mixture in the south-western departments of Cauca and [[Valle del Cauca Department|Valle del Cauca]]. In these mestizo areas the African culture has had a great influence.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wade |first=Peter |date=1995 |title=The Cultural Politics of Blackness in Colombia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/646706 |journal=American Ethnologist |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=341–357 |doi=10.1525/ae.1995.22.2.02a00070 |jstor=646706 |issn=0094-0496}}</ref>