Editing Vesicle (biology and chemistry) (section)

==== Types ====
* [[Microvesicles|Ectosomes/microvesicles]] are shed directly from the plasma membrane and can range in size from around 30 [[Nanometre|nm]] to larger than a micron in diameter<ref name="vdPol2012" />{{rp|Table 1}}). These may include large particles such as [[bleb (cell biology)#Apoptotic function|apoptotic blebs]] released by dying cells,<ref name="J of T">{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Pol E, Böing AN, Gool EL, Nieuwland R | title = Recent developments in the nomenclature, presence, isolation, detection and clinical impact of extracellular vesicles | journal = Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis | volume = 14 | issue = 1 | pages = 48–56 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26564379 | doi = 10.1111/jth.13190 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="vdPol2012" />{{rp|Table 1}} [[large oncosomes]] released by some cancer cells, or "[[exophers]]," released by nematode neurons<ref name="Melentijevic-2017">{{cite journal | vauthors = Melentijevic I, Toth ML, Arnold ML, Guasp RJ, Harinath G, Nguyen KC, Taub D, Parker JA, Neri C, Gabel CV, Hall DH, Driscoll M | display-authors = 6 | title = C. elegans neurons jettison protein aggregates and mitochondria under neurotoxic stress | journal = Nature | volume = 542 | issue = 7641 | pages = 367–371 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28178240 | pmc = 5336134 | doi = 10.1038/nature21362 | bibcode = 2017Natur.542..367M }}</ref> and mouse cardiomyocytes.
* [[Exosome (vesicle)|Exosome]]s: membranous vesicles of endocytic origin (30-100&nbsp;nm diameter).<ref name="vdPol2012" />{{rp|Table 1}}

Different types of EVs may be separated based on density<ref name=vdPol2012/>{{rp|Table 1}} (by gradient [[differential centrifugation]]), size, or surface markers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Mateescu B, Kowal EJ, van Balkom BW, Bartel S, Bhattacharyya SN, Buzás EI, Buck AH, de Candia P, Chow FW, Das S, Driedonks TA, Fernández-Messina L, Haderk F, Hill AF, Jones JC, Van Keuren-Jensen KR, Lai CP, Lässer C, Liegro ID, Lunavat TR, Lorenowicz MJ, Maas SL, Mäger I, Mittelbrunn M, Momma S, Mukherjee K, Nawaz M, Pegtel DM, Pfaffl MW, Schiffelers RM, Tahara H, Théry C, Tosar JP, Wauben MH, Witwer KW, Nolte-'t Hoen EN | display-authors = 6 | title = Obstacles and opportunities in the functional analysis of extracellular vesicle RNA - an ISEV position paper | journal = Journal of Extracellular Vesicles | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 1286095 | date = 2017 | pmid = 28326170 | pmc = 5345583 | doi = 10.1080/20013078.2017.1286095 }}</ref> However, EV subtypes have an overlapping size and density ranges, and subtype-unique markers must be established on a cell-by-cell basis. Therefore, it is difficult to pinpoint the biogenesis pathway that gave rise to a particular EV after it has left the cell.<ref name="MISEV2018" />

In humans, endogenous extracellular vesicles likely play a role in coagulation, intercellular signaling and waste management.<ref name=vdPol2012>{{cite journal | vauthors = van der Pol E, Böing AN, Harrison P, Sturk A, Nieuwland R | title = Classification, functions, and clinical relevance of extracellular vesicles | journal = Pharmacological Reviews | volume = 64 | issue = 3 | pages = 676–705 | date = July 2012 | pmid = 22722893 | doi = 10.1124/pr.112.005983 | s2cid = 7764903 }} Free full text</ref> They are also implicated in the pathophysiological processes involved in multiple diseases, including cancer.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dhondt B, Rousseau Q, De Wever O, Hendrix A | title = Function of extracellular vesicle-associated miRNAs in metastasis | journal = Cell and Tissue Research | volume = 365 | issue = 3 | pages = 621–41 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27289232 | doi = 10.1007/s00441-016-2430-x | s2cid = 2746182 | hdl = 1854/LU-7250365 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/7067858 }}</ref> Extracellular vesicles have raised interest as a potential source of biomarker discovery because of their role in intercellular communication, release into easily accessible body fluids and the resemblance of their molecular content to that of the releasing cells.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Dhondt B, Van Deun J, Vermaerke S, de Marco A, Lumen N, De Wever O, Hendrix A | title = Urinary extracellular vesicle biomarkers in urological cancers: From discovery towards clinical implementation | journal = The International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology | volume = 99 | pages = 236–256 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29654900 | doi = 10.1016/j.biocel.2018.04.009 | hdl = 1854/LU-8559155 | s2cid = 4876604 | url = https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/7067903 }}</ref> The extracellular vesicles of [[Mesenchymal stem cell|(mesenchymal) stem cells]], also known as the [[Stem cell secretome|secretome of stem cells]], are being researched and applied for therapeutic purposes, predominantly [[Degenerative disease|degenerative]], [[Autoimmune disease|auto-immune]] and/or [[Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases|inflammatory]] diseases.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Teixeira FG, Carvalho MM, Sousa N, Salgado AJ | title = Mesenchymal stem cells secretome: a new paradigm for central nervous system regeneration? | journal = Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences | volume = 70 | issue = 20 | pages = 3871–82 | date = October 2013 | pmid = 23456256 | doi = 10.1007/s00018-013-1290-8 | pmc = 11113366 | s2cid = 18640402 | hdl = 1822/25128 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>

In Gram-negative bacteria, EVs are produced by the pinching off of the outer membrane; however, how EVs escape the thick cell walls of Gram-positive bacteria, mycobacteria and fungi is still unknown. These EVs contain varied cargo, including nucleic acids, toxins, lipoproteins and enzymes and have important roles in microbial physiology and pathogenesis. In host–pathogen interactions, gram negative bacteria produce vesicles which play roles in establishing a colonization niche, carrying and transmitting virulence factors into host cells and modulating host defense and response.<ref name=Kuehn2005>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kuehn MJ, Kesty NC | title = Bacterial outer membrane vesicles and the host–pathogen interaction | journal = Genes & Development | volume = 19 | issue = 22 | pages = 2645–55 | date = November 2005 | pmid = 16291643 | doi = 10.1101/gad.1299905 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Ocean [[cyanobacteria]] have been found to continuously release vesicles containing proteins, DNA and RNA into the open ocean. Vesicles carrying DNA from diverse bacteria are abundant in coastal and open-ocean seawater samples.<ref name=Biller2014>{{cite journal | vauthors = Biller SJ, Schubotz F, Roggensack SE, Thompson AW, Summons RE, Chisholm SW | title = Bacterial vesicles in marine ecosystems | journal = Science | volume = 343 | issue = 6167 | pages = 183–6 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24408433 | doi = 10.1126/science.1243457 | s2cid = 206551356 | bibcode = 2014Sci...343..183B | hdl = 1721.1/84545 | hdl-access = free }}</ref>