Editing Uruk (section)

==Archaeology==
[[File:Meso2mil-English.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Mesopotamia]] in the [[2nd millennium BC|2nd millennium BCE]]. From north to south: [[Nineveh]], [[Tell al-Rimah|Qattara (or Karana)]], [[Dūr-Katlimmu]], [[Assur]], [[Arrapha]], [[Terqa]], [[Nuzi]], [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], [[Eshnunna]], [[Dur-Kurigalzu]], [[Der (Sumer)|Der]], [[Sippar]], [[Babylon]], [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]], [[Susa]], [[Borsippa]], [[Nippur]], [[Isin]], Uruk, [[Larsa]] and [[Ur]]]]
By the end of the Uruk period c. 3100 BCE) Uruk had reached a size of {{Convert|250|ha|abbr=on}}. During the following [[Jemdet Nasr period]] it grew to a size of {{Convert|600|ha|abbr=on}} by c. 2800 BCE with the main temple area of Eanna being completely rebuilt after leveling the foundations of the Uruk period construction.<ref>Nissen, H. J., "Uruk: Key Site of the Period and Key Site of the Problem", in Artefacts of Complexity: Tracking the Uruk in the Near East, edited by J. N. Postgate,  Warminster: British School of Archaeology in Iraq, pp. 1–16, 2002</ref> A new city wall was constructed in this period.<ref name="Nissen1972" />

The site, which lies about {{convert|50|mile|km|abbr=on}} northwest of ancient [[Ur]], is one of the largest in the region at around {{convert|5.5|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} in area. The maximum extent is {{convert|3|km|mile|abbr=on}} north/south, and {{convert|2.5|km|mile|abbr=on}} east/west. There are three major [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]]s within the site: The Eanna district, Bit Resh (Kullaba), and Irigal. Archaeologically, the site is divided into six parts
#the É-Anna ziggurat ' Egipar-imin,
#the É-Anna enclosure (Zingel),
#the Anu-Antum temple complex, BitRes and Anu-ziggurat,
#Irigal, the South Building,
#Parthian structures including the Gareus-temple, and the Multiple Apse building,
#the "Gilgameš" city-wall with associated Sinkâsid Palace and the Seleucid Bit Akîtu.<ref>North, Robert, "Status of the Warka Excavation", ''Orientalia'', vol. 26, no. 3, pp. 185–256, 1957</ref>

[[File:Uruk (latine).webm|thumb|Reconstruction video of Uruk (English subtitles)]]
The location of Uruk was first noted by Fraser and Ross in 1835.<ref>Fraser, James Baillie, ''Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia, Etc: Including an Account of Parts of Those Countries Hitherto Unvisited by Europeans'', R. Bentley, 1840</ref> [[William Loftus (archaeologist)|William Loftus]] excavated there in 1850 and 1854 after a scouting mission in 1849. By Loftus' own account, he admits that the first excavations were superficial at best, as his financiers forced him to deliver large museum artifacts at a minimal cost.<ref name="Loftus1857">William K. Loftus, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_4ZiBAAAAIAAJ ''Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana, Travels and Researches in Chaldaea and Susiana: With an Account of Excavations at Warka, the "Erech" of Nimrod, and Shush, "Shushan the Palace" of Esther, in 1849–52''], Robert Carter & Brothers, 1857</ref> A large basalt stela found by Loftus was later lost.<ref>Reade, Julian, "Early monuments in Gulf stone at the British Museum, with observations on some Gudea statues and the location of Agade", vol. 92, no. 2, pp. 258-295, 2002</ref> Warka was also scouted by archaeologist [[Walter Andrae]] in 1902.<ref>Walter Andrae, Die deutschen Ausgrabungen in Warka (Uruk), Berlin, 1935</ref> In 1905 Warka was visited by archaeologist [[Edgar James Banks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/473565|last= Banks|first= Edgar James|title=Warka, the Ruins of Erech (Gen. 10: 10) {{!}} The Biblical World 25.4, pp. 302–305, 1905|doi= 10.1086/473565}}</ref>

[[File:Male deity pouring a life-giving water from a vessel. Facade of Inanna Temple at Uruk, Iraq. 15th century BC. The Pergamon Museum.jpg|thumb|Male deity pouring a life-giving water from a vessel. FacCEe of Inanna Temple at Uruk, Iraq. 15th century BCE. The Pergamon Museum]]
From 1912 to 1913, [[Julius Jordan]] and his team from the [[Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft|German Oriental Society]] discovered the temple of [[Ishtar]], one of four known temples located at the site. The temples at Uruk were quite remarkable as they were constructed with brick and adorned with colorful [[mosaic]]s. Jordan also discovered part of the [[city wall]]. It was later discovered that this {{convert|40|to|50|ft|m|adj=on}} high brick wall, probably utilized as a defense mechanism, totally encompassed the city at a length of {{convert|9|km|mi|abbr=on}}. Utilizing sedimentary strata dating techniques, this wall is estimated to have been erected around 3000 BCE. Jordan produced a contour map of the entire site.<ref name="Nissen1972">Nissen, H. J., "The City Wall of Uruk", in Ucko, P. J., R. Tringham and G. W. Dimbleby (eds.), Man, Settlement and Urbanism. London: Duckworth, pp. 793–98, 1972</ref>
The GOS returned to Uruk in 1928 and excavated until 1939, when [[World War II]] intervened. The team was led by Jordan until 1931 when Jordan became Director of Antiquities in Baghdad, then by A. Nöldeke, Ernst Heinrich, and H. J. Lenzen.<ref>Julius Jordan, "Uruk-Warka nach dem ausgrabungen durch die Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft", Hinrichs, 1928 (German)</ref><ref>[https://commons.library.stonybrook.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1307&context=amar] Ernst Heinrich, "Kleinfunde aus den archaischen Tempelschichten in Uruk", Harrassowitz, Leipzig 1936 (German)</ref> Among the finds was the Stell of the Lion Hunt, excavated in a Jemdat Nadr layer but sylistically dated to Uruk IV.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763212&increment=87|author= Faraj Basmachi|title=The Lion-Hunt Stela from Warka {{!}} Sumer  |volume=5, iss. 1|pages=87–90|year= 1949}}</ref>

The German excavations resumed after the war and were under the direction of Heinrich Lenzen from 1954 to 1967.<ref>H. J. Lenzen, "The Ningiszida Temple Built by Marduk-Apla-Iddina II at Uruk (Warka)", ''Iraq'', vol. 19, no. 2, pp. 146–150, 1957</ref><ref name="Lenzen1960">{{ cite book|url=https://findit.library.yale.edu/images_layout/view?parentoid=15763248&increment=8|author= H. J. Lenzen|title= The E-anna district after excavations in the winter of 1958–59 {{!}} Sumer|volume= 16 |pages= 3–11|year= 1960}}</ref><ref>H. J. Lenzen, "New discoveries at Warka in southern Iraq", ''Archaeology'', vol. 17, pp. 122–131, 1964</ref> He was followed in 1968 by J. Schmidt, and in 1978 by R.M. Boehmer.<ref>J. Schmidt, "Uruk-Warka, Susammenfassender Bericht uber die 27. Kampagne 1969", ''Baghdader'', vol. 5, pp. 51–96, 1970</ref><ref>Rainer Michael Boehmer, "Uruk 1980–1990: a progress report", ''Antiquity'', vol. 65, pp. 465–478, 1991</ref> In total, the German archaeologists spent 39 seasons working at Uruk. The results are documented in two series of reports:
* {{lang|de|Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk}} (ADFU), 17 volumes, 1912–2001 
* {{lang|de|Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka, Endberichte}} (AUWE), 25 volumes, 1987–2007

[[File:معبد كاريوس ...اوروك .... مدينة الوركاء ... المثنى.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the [[Temple of Gareus]] at Uruk, c. 100 CE]]
Most recently, from 2001 to 2002, the [[German Archaeological Institute]] team led by Margarete van Ess, with Joerg Fassbinder and Helmut Becker, conducted a partial magnetometer survey in Uruk. In addition to the geophysical survey, core samples and aerial photographs were taken. This was followed up with high-resolution satellite imagery in 2005.<ref>M. van Ess and J. Fassbinder, "Magnetic prospection of Uruk (Warka) Iraq", in: ''La Prospection Géophysique, Dossiers d'Archeologie'' Nr. 308, pp. 20–25, Nov. 2005</ref> Work resumed in 2016 and is currently concentrated on the city wall area and a survey of the surrounding landscape.<ref>Van Ess, Margarete, and J. Fassbinder, "Uruk-Warka. Archaeological Research 2016–2018, Preliminary Report", ''Sumer Journal of Archaeology of Iraq'' 65, pp. 47–85, 2019</ref><ref>Margarete van Ess, [https://publications.dainst.org/journals/efb/article/download/2252/6690 "Uruk, Irak. Wissenschaftliche Forschungen 2019"], ''e-Forschungsberichte des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts'', vol. 2, pp. 117–121, 2019</ref><ref>van Ess, Margarete, et al., [https://publications.dainst.org/journals/efb/article/download/3980/7665 "Uruk, Irak. Wissenschaftliche Forschungen und Konservierungsarbeiten. Die Arbeiten der Jahre 2020 bis 2022"], ''e-Forschungsberichte'', pp. 1–31, 2022</ref> Part of the work has been to create a [[digital twin]] of the Uruk archaeological area.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Haibt|first= Max|title=End-to-end digital twin creation of the archaeological landscape in Uruk-Warka (Iraq)|journal= International Journal of Digital Earth |year= 2024|volume= 17|issue= 1|doi= 10.1080/17538947.2024.2324964|doi-access= free|bibcode= 2024IJDE...1724964H}}</ref> The current effort also involves geophysical surveying. The soil characteristics of the site make ground penetrating radar unsuitable so caesium magnetometers, combined with resistivity probes, are being used.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/download/63556215/Fassbinder-June-2020-ANEToday20200607-46484-tqqr9l.pdf|last= Fassbinder|first=Jörg W. E|title=Beneath the Euphrates Sediments: Magnetic Traces of the Mesopotamian Megacity Uruk-Warka {{!}} Ancient Near East Today 8, 2020}}</ref>

===Cuneiform tablets===
[[File:Uruk Ziggurat (30744982822).jpg|thumb|right|A massive ziggurat dating from the 4th millennium BCE stands at the entrance to Uruk (Warka), 39 km east of [[Samawah]], Iraq]]
A number of [[Proto-cuneiform]] clay tablets were found at Uruk. About 190 were Uruk V period (c. 3500 BCE) "numerical tablets" or "impressed tablets", 1776 were from the Uruk IV period (c. 3300 BCE), 3094 from the Uruk III period (c. 3200-2900 BCE) which is also called the [[Jemdet Nasr period]].<ref>Hans J. Nissen, "The Archaic Texts from Uruk", World Archaeology, vol. 17, no. 3, pp. 317–334, 1986</ref><ref>M. W. Green, "Archaic Uruk Cuneiform", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 90, no. 4, pp. 464–466, 1986</ref> Later cuneiform tablets were deciphered and include the famous ''SKL'', a record of kings of the Sumerian civilization. There was an even larger cache of legal and scholarly tablets of the [[Neo-Babylonian]], [[Late Babylonian]], and [[Seleucid]] period, that have been published by [[Adam Falkenstein]] and other [[Assyrology|Assyriological]] members of the German Archaeological Institute in Baghdad as Jan J. A. Djik,<ref>Jan J. A. Djik, "Texte aus dem Rēš-Heiligtum in Uruk-Warka", (= ''Baghdader Mitteilungen''. Beiheft 2), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1980 {{ISBN|3-7861-1282-7}}</ref> [[Hermann Hunger]], Antoine Cavigneaux, {{interlanguage link|Egbert von Weiher|de}},<ref>Egbert von Weiher, "Spätbabylonischen Texte aus Uruk, Teil II". (= Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka 10), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1983 {{ISBN|3-7861-1336-X}}</ref><ref>Egbert von Weiher, "Spätbabylonischen Texte aus Uruk, Teil III", (= Ausgrabungen der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft in Uruk-Warka 12), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1988 {{ISBN|3-7861-1508-7}}</ref><ref>Egbert von Weiher, "Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Texte aus aus dem Planquadrat U 18, Teil IV", (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 12), Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1993 {{ISBN|3-8053-1504-X}}</ref><ref>Egbert von Weiher, ''Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Texte aus aus dem Planquadrat U 18, Teil V'' (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 13), Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1998 {{ISBN|3-8053-1850-2}}</ref> and {{ill|Karlheinz Kessler|de}}, or others as Erlend Gehlken.<ref>Erlend Gehlken, "Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Wirtschaftstext aus dem Eanna-Archiv, Teil 1", (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 5), Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1990 {{ISBN|3-8053-1217-2}}</ref><ref>Erlend Gehlken, "Uruk. Spätbabylonischen Wirtschaftstext aus dem Eanna-Archiv, Teil 2", (= Ausgrabungen in Uruk-Warka. Endberichte 11), Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern, 1996 {{ISBN|3-8053-1545-7}}</ref><ref>Corò, Paola, "The Missing Link – Connections between Administrative and Legal Documents in Hellenistic Uruk", ''Archiv für Orientforschung'', vol. 53, pp. 86–92, 2015</ref> Many of the cuneiform tablets form acquisitions by museums and collections as the [[British Museum]], [[Yale Babylonian Collection]], and the [[Louvre]]. The latter holds a unique cuneiform tablet in Aramaic known as the [[Aramaic Uruk incantation]]. The last dated cuneiform tablet from Uruk was W22340a, an astronomical almanac, which is dated to 79/80 CE.<ref>Hunger, Hermann and de Jong, Teije, "Almanac W22340a From Uruk: The Latest Datable Cuneiform Tablet", ''Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie'', vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 182–194, 2014</ref>

The oldest known writing to feature a person's name was found in Uruk, in the form of several tablets that mention [[Kushim (Uruk period)|Kushim]], who (assuming they are an individual person) served as an accountant recording transactions made in trading barley – ''29,086 measures barley 37 months Kushim''.<ref>Mattessich, Richard, "Recent Insights into Mesopotamian Accounting of the 3rd Millennium B.C — Successor to Token Accounting", The Accounting Historians Journal, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 1–27, 1998</ref><ref>Nissen, HansJörg; Damerow, Peter; Englund, Robert K., "Archaic Bookkeeping: Early Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East", Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993</ref>

[[File:Glockentopf.jpg|thumb|left|Late Uruk Period [[beveled rim bowl]]s used for ration distribution]]
[[Beveled rim bowl]]s were the most common type of container used during the Uruk period. They are believed to be vessels for serving rations of food or drink to dependent laborers. The introduction of the fast [[Potter's wheel|wheel]] for throwing pottery was developed during the later part of the Uruk period, and made the mass production of pottery simpler and more standardized.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Interplay of People and Technologies Archaeological Case Studies on Innovations|last=Burmeister|first=Stefan|others=Bernbeck, Reinhard|year=2017|isbn=978-3-9816751-8-4|edition=1st|location=Berlin|oclc=987573072}}</ref>

===Artifacts===
{{main|Art of Uruk}}
The [[The Mask of Warka|Mask of Warka]], also known as the 'Lady of Uruk' and the 'Sumerian [[Mona Lisa]]', dating from 3100&nbsp;BCE, is one of the earliest representations of the human face. The carved marble female face is probably a depiction of Inanna. It is approximately {{Convert|20|cm|abbr=on}} tall, and may have been incorporated into a larger cult image. The mask was looted from the [[Iraq Museum]] during the [[2003 invasion of Iraq|invasion of Iraq]] in April 2003. It was recovered in September 2003 and returned to the museum.
<gallery>
File:Male bust Louvre AO10921.jpg|[[Lugal-kisalsi]], king of Uruk
File:Warka mask (cropped).jpg|Mask of Warka
File:Bull Warka Louvre AO8218.jpg|Bull sculpture, [[Jemdet Nasr period]], c. 3000&nbsp;BCE
File:Stele of lion hunt, from Uruk, Iraq, 3000-2900 BCE. Iraq Museum.jpg| Stele of the Lion Hunt – Uruk period
</gallery>

===Archaeological levels of Uruk===
Archeologists have discovered multiple cities of Uruk built atop each other in chronological order.<ref name="Charvát2002" >{{Cite book | last = Charvát | first = Petr | author2 = Zainab Bahrani | author2-link = Zainab Bahrani | author3 = Marc Van de Mieroop | title = Mesopotamia Before History | publisher = Routledge | year = 2002 | location = London | url = https://archive.org/details/MesopotamiaBeforeHistory/mode/2up | isbn = 0-415-25104-4}}</ref>
* Uruk XVIII Eridu period ({{circa}} 5000&nbsp;BCE): the founding of Uruk
* Uruk XVIII–XVI Late Ubaid period (4800–4200&nbsp;BCE)
* Uruk XVI–X Early Uruk period (4000–3800&nbsp;BCE)
* Uruk IX–VI Middle Uruk period (3800–3400&nbsp;BCE)
* Uruk V–IV Late Uruk period (3400–3100&nbsp;BCE): the earliest monumental temples of Eanna District are built
* Uruk III Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900&nbsp;BCE): the 9&nbsp;km city wall is built
* Uruk II
* Uruk I

===Anu District===
{{Main|Anu ziggurat}}
{{multiple image
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The area traditionally called the Anu district consists of a single massive terrace, the [[Anu ziggurat]], originally proposed to have been dedicated to the Sumerian sky god [[Anu]].

===Eanna District===
[[File:Eanna4composite.svg|right|thumb|Eanna IVa (light brown) and IVb (dark brown)]]
The Eanna district is historically significant as both writing and monumental public architecture emerged here during Uruk periods VI–IV. The combination of these two developments places Eanna as arguably the first true city and civilization in human history. Eanna during period IVa contains the earliest examples of writing.<ref>{{cite book|last=Nissen|first=Hans J.|chapter=Urbanization and the techniques of communication: the Mesopotamian city of Uruk during the fourth millennium BCE|series=[[The Cambridge World History]]|volume=3|title=Early Cities in Comparative Perspective, 4000 BCE–1200 CE|editor-last=Yoffee|editor-first=Norman|editor-link=Norman Yoffee|year=2015|isbn=978-0-521-19008-4|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=113}}</ref>

The first building of [[Eanna]], Stone-Cone Temple (Mosaic Temple), was built in period VI over a preexisting Ubaid temple and is enclosed by a limestone wall with an elaborate system of [[buttress]]es. The Stone-Cone Temple, named for the [[mosaic]] of colored stone cones driven into the Ad[[adobe brick|obe brick]] façade, may be the earliest water cult in Mesopotamia. It was "destroyed by force" in Uruk IVb period and its contents interred in the Riemchen Building.<ref name="Lenzen1960" />

[[File:Cylinder seal king Louvre AO6620.jpg|thumb|left|An Uruk period cylinder-seal and its impression, c. 3100 BCE. [[Louvre Museum|Louvre]]]]
In the following period, Uruk V, about 100&nbsp;m east of the Stone-Cone Temple the Limestone Temple was built on a 2&nbsp;m high rammed-earth [[podium]] over a pre-existing Ubaid temple, which like the Stone-Cone Temple represents a continuation of Ubaid culture. However, the Limestone Temple was unprecedented for its size and use of stone, a clear departure from traditional Ubaid architecture. The stone was quarried from an outcrop at Umayyad about 60&nbsp;km east of Uruk. It is unclear if the entire temple or just the foundation was built of this [[limestone]]. The Limestone Temple is probably the first Inanna temple, but it is impossible to know with certainty. Like the Stone-Cone temple the Limestone temple was also covered in cone mosaics. Both of these temples were rectangles with their corners aligned to the cardinal directions, a central hall flanked along the long axis by two smaller halls, and buttressed façades; the prototype of all future Mesopotamian temple architectural [[Typology (urban planning and architecture)|typology]].

[[File:Pictographs Recording the Allocation of Beer (London, England).jpg|thumb|right|Tablet from Uruk III (c. 3200–3000 BCE) recording beer distributions from the storerooms of an institution,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdli.ucla.edu/cdlisearch/search/index.php?SearchMode=Browse&ResultCount=1&txtID_Txt=P005323|title=Tablet MSVO 3,12 /BM 140855: description on CDLI.}}</ref> [[British Museum]]]]
Between these two monumental structures a complex of buildings (called A–C, E–K, Riemchen, Cone-Mosaic), courts, and walls was built during Eanna IVb. These buildings were built during a time of great expansion in Uruk as the city grew to {{Convert|250|ha|abbr=on}} and established long-distance trade, and are a continuation of architecture from the previous period. The Riemchen Building, named for the {{Convert|16|cm|abbr=on}}×{{Convert|16|cm|abbr=on}} brick shape called ''Riemchen'' by the Germans, is a memorial with a ritual fire kept burning in the center for the Stone-Cone Temple after it was destroyed. For this reason, Uruk IV period represents a reorientation of belief and culture. The facade of this memorial may have been covered in geometric and figural murals. The Riemchen bricks first used in this temple were used to construct all buildings of Uruk IV period Eanna. The use of colored cones as a façade treatment was greatly developed as well, perhaps used to greatest effect in the Cone-Mosaic Temple. Composed of three parts: Temple N, the Round Pillar Hall, and the Cone-Mosaic Courtyard, this temple was the most monumental structure of Eanna at the time. They were all ritually destroyed and the entire Eanna district was rebuilt in period IVa at an even grander scale.

During Eanna IVa, the Limestone Temple was demolished and the Red Temple built on its foundations. The accumulated debris of the Uruk IVb buildings were formed into a [[Terrace (building)|terrace]], the L-Shaped Terrace, on which Buildings C, D, M, Great Hall, and Pillar Hall were built. Building E was initially thought to be a palace, but later proven to be a communal building. Also in period IV, the Great Court, a sunken courtyard surrounded by two tiers of benches covered in cone mosaic, was built. A small [[aqueduct (watercourse)|aqueduct]] drains into the Great Courtyard, which may have irrigated a garden at one time. The impressive buildings of this period were built as Uruk reached its zenith and expanded to 600&nbsp;hectares. All the buildings of Eanna IVa were destroyed sometime in Uruk III, for unclear reasons.{{Citation needed|date=September 2021}}

The architecture of Eanna in period III was very different from what had preceded it. The complex of monumental temples was replaced with baths around the Great Courtyard and the labyrinthine Rammed-Earth Building. This period corresponds to [[History of Sumer|Early Dynastic Sumer]] {{circa}} 2900&nbsp;BCE, a time of great social upheaval when the dominance of Uruk was eclipsed by competing [[city-state]]s. The [[fortress]]-like architecture of this time is a reflection of that turmoil. The temple of Inanna continued functioning during this time in a new form and under a new name, 'The House of Inanna in Uruk' (Sumerian: {{Transliteration|sux|e₂-ᵈinanna unuᵏⁱ-ga}}). The location of this structure is currently unknown.<ref name="Beaulieu2003" />