Editing USS Constitution (section)

==War of 1812==
{{See also|War of 1812}}

[[File:Chase of the Constitution, July 1812.jpg|thumb|alt=A painting of a ship with all sails up and a pursuing squadron behind it. In the foreground are small boats.|''Constitution'' during the chase]]

''Constitution'' was recommissioned in December with Captain John Rodgers again taking command to oversee a major refitting. It was overhauled at a cost just under $100,000; however, Rodgers inexplicably failed to clean her [[copper sheathing]], leading him to later declare her a "slow {{not a typo|sailer}}". It spent most of the following two years on training runs and ordinary duty.<ref name="Hollis124125">Hollis (1900), pp. 124–125.</ref> Isaac Hull took command in June 1810, and he immediately recognized that it needed her bottom cleaned. "Ten {{not a typo|waggon}}<!-- This is a quote, Do not correct spelling --> loads" of barnacles and seaweed were removed.<ref name="Martin128130131">Martin (1997), pp. 128, 130–131.</ref>

Hull departed for France on 5 August 1811, transporting the new Ambassador [[Joel Barlow]] and his family; they arrived on 1 September. Hull remained near France and the Netherlands through the winter months, continually holding sail and gun drills to keep the crew ready for possible hostilities with the British. Tensions were high between the United States and Britain after the events of the [[Little Belt affair|''Little Belt'' affair]] the previous May, and ''Constitution'' was shadowed by British frigates while awaiting dispatches from Barlow to carry back to the United States. They arrived home on 18 February 1812.<ref name="Hollis125131">Hollis (1900), pp. 125–131.</ref><ref name="MacSmith331333">Maclay and Smith (1898), Volume 1, pp. 331–333.</ref>

War was declared on 18 June and Hull put to sea on 12 July, attempting to join the five ships of a squadron under the command of Rodgers in ''President''. He sighted five ships off Egg Harbor, New Jersey, on 17 July and at first believed them to be Rodgers' squadron but, by the following morning, the lookouts determined that they were a British squadron out of Halifax: {{HMS|Aeolus|1801|6}}, {{HMS|Africa|1781|2}}, {{HMS|Belvidera|1809|2}}, {{HMS|Guerriere|1806|2}}, and {{HMS|Shannon|1806|2}}. They had sighted ''Constitution'' and were giving chase.<ref name="Hollis142146">Hollis (1900), pp. 142–146.</ref><ref name="Teddy83">Roosevelt (1883), p. 83.</ref>

Constitution was becalmed and unable to run from the five British ships, but Hull acted on a suggestion from his First Lieutenant [[Charles Morris (naval officer)|Charles Morris]]. He ordered the crew to put boats over the side to tow the ship out of range, using [[kedge anchor]]s to draw the ship forward and wetting the sails to take advantage of every breath of wind.<ref name="Hollis146148">Hollis (1900), pp. 146–148.</ref> The British ships soon imitated the tactic of kedging and remained in pursuit. The resulting 57-hour chase in the July heat forced the crew of ''Constitution'' to employ myriad tactics to outrun the squadron, finally pumping overboard {{convert|2300|USgal|kl|abbr=on}} of drinking water.<ref name="Jennings211">Jennings (1966), p. 211.</ref> Cannon fire was exchanged several times, though the British attempts fell short or overshot their mark, including an attempted [[Broadside (naval)|broadside]] from ''Belvidera''. On 19 July, ''Constitution'' pulled far enough ahead of the British that they abandoned the pursuit.<ref name="Toll344">Toll (2006), p. 344.</ref><ref name="Teddy8388">Roosevelt (1883), pp. 83–88.</ref>

''Constitution'' arrived in Boston on 27 July and remained there just long enough to replenish her supplies. Hull sailed without orders on 2 August to avoid being blockaded in port,<ref name="Jennings216">Jennings (1966), p. 216.</ref> heading on a northeast route towards the British shipping lanes near Halifax and the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]]. ''Constitution'' captured three British merchantmen, which Hull burned rather than risk taking them back to an American port. On 16 August, he learned of a British frigate {{convert|100|nmi|km mi|abbr=on}} to the south and sailed in pursuit.<ref name="Hollis154157">Hollis (1900), pp. 154–157.</ref><ref name="Teddy8889">Roosevelt (1883), pp. 88–89.</ref>

===''Constitution'' vs. ''Guerriere''===
{{Main|USS Constitution vs HMS Guerriere}}

[[File:USS Constitution v HMS Guerriere.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A painting depicts two ships at battle. Constitution is at the right of the frame with torn sails. Guerriere is in the middle of the frame with damaged masts and a lot of cannon smoke around her deck.|''Constitution'' and ''Guerriere'' in battle]]

A frigate was sighted on 19 August and subsequently determined to be {{HMS|Guerriere|1806|6}} (38) under Captain [[James Richard Dacres (Royal Navy officer, born 1788)|James Dacres]] with the words "Not The Little Belt" painted on her foretopsail.<ref name="Toll348">Toll (2006), p. 348.</ref>{{refn|The words painted on the sail were in reference to the [[Little Belt affair|''Little Belt'' affair]], when {{USS|President|1800|6}} had fired on HMS ''Little Belt'' the year before. Captain John Rodgers of ''President'' had mistakenly identified ''Little Belt'' as ''Guerriere'', and Captain James Dacres of ''Guerriere'' had written a challenge of combat to him.<ref name="Toll348"/>|group=Note}} ''Guerriere'' opened fire upon entering range of ''Constitution'', doing little damage. After a few exchanges of cannon fire between the ships, Captain Hull maneuvered ''Constitution'' into an advantageous position within {{convert|25|yd|m}} of ''Guerriere''. He then ordered a full double-loaded broadside of grape and round shot, which took out ''Guerriere''{{'}}s mizzenmast.<ref name="Jennings 224">Jennings (1966), p. 224.</ref><ref name="Teddy8990">Roosevelt (1883), pp. 89–90.</ref> ''Guerriere''{{'}}s maneuverability decreased with her mizzenmast dragging in the water, and it collided with ''Constitution'', entangling her bowsprit in ''Constitution''{{'}}s mizzen rigging. This left only ''Guerriere''{{'}}s bow guns capable of effective fire. Hull's cabin caught fire from the shots, but it was quickly extinguished. With the ships locked together, both Hull and Dacres ordered boarding parties into action, but the sea was heavy and neither party was able to board the opposing ship.<ref name="Teddy9091">Roosevelt (1883), pp. 90–91.</ref>

At one point, the two ships rotated together counter-clockwise, with ''Constitution'' continuing to fire broadsides. When the two ships pulled apart, the force of the bowsprit's extraction sent shock waves through ''Guerriere''{{'}}s rigging. Her foremast collapsed, and that brought the mainmast down shortly afterward.<ref name="Hill160">Hill (1905), p. 160.</ref> ''Guerriere'' was now a dismasted, unmanageable hulk with close to a third of her crew wounded or killed, while ''Constitution'' remained largely intact. Dacres was eventually brought onto ''Constitution'' where he presented his sword to Hull as a sign of surrender, but Hull refused to accept it saying he could not accept the sword from a man who had fought so gallantly.<ref>Toll (2006), pp. 352–353.</ref>

Hull had surprised the crew of ''Guerriere'' with his ship's heavier broadsides and sailing ability. Adding to their astonishment, many of ''Guerriere''{{'}}s shots had rebounded harmlessly off ''Constitution''{{'}}s hull. An American sailor reportedly exclaimed "Huzzah! Her sides are made of iron!" and ''Constitution'' acquired the nickname "Old Ironsides".<ref>Toll (2006), p. 350.</ref> The battle left ''Guerriere'' so badly damaged that it was not worth towing to port, and Hull ordered her to be burned the next morning, after transferring the British prisoners onto ''Constitution''.<ref name="Teddy94">Roosevelt (1883), p. 94.</ref> ''Constitution'' arrived back in Boston on 30 August, where Hull and his crew found that news of their victory had spread fast, and they were hailed as heroes.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 354.</ref>

===''Constitution'' vs ''Java''===
[[File:Constitution-Java battle plan.png|thumb|alt=A penciled line drawing depicting two ships and their course of engagement|Diagram of the battle between ''Constitution'' and ''Java'']]

William Bainbridge, senior to Hull, took command of "Old Ironsides" on 8 September and prepared her for another mission in British shipping lanes near Brazil, sailing with {{USS|Hornet|1805 brig|2}} on 27 October. They arrived near [[São Salvador do Mundo, Cape Verde|São Salvador]] on 13 December, sighting {{HMS|Bonne Citoyenne|1796|6}} in the harbor.<ref name="Hollis177178">Hollis (1900), pp. 177–178.</ref> ''Bonne Citoyenne'' was reportedly carrying $1.6 million in spice to England, and her captain refused to leave the neutral harbor lest he lose his cargo. ''Constitution'' sailed offshore in search of prizes, leaving ''Hornet'' to await the departure of ''Bonne Citoyenne''.<ref name="Hollis178179">Hollis (1900), pp. 178–179.</ref> On 29 December, it met with {{HMS|Java|1811|6}} under Captain [[Henry Lambert]]. At the initial hail from Bainbridge, ''Java'' answered with a broadside that severely damaged ''Constitution''{{'}}s rigging. It was able to recover, however, and returned a series of broadsides to ''Java''. A shot from ''Java'' destroyed ''Constitution''{{'}}s helm (wheel), so Bainbridge directed the crew to steer her manually using the [[tiller]] for the remainder of the engagement.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 376.</ref> Bainbridge was wounded twice during the battle. ''Java''{{'}}s bowsprit became entangled in ''Constitution''{{'}}s rigging, as in the battle with ''Guerriere'', allowing Bainbridge to continue raking her with broadsides. ''Java''{{'}}s foremast collapsed, sending her fighting top crashing down through two decks below.<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 235.</ref>

Bainbridge drew off to make emergency repairs and re-approached ''Java'' an hour later. It was a shambles, an unmanageable wreck with a badly wounded crew, and it surrendered.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 381.</ref> Bainbridge determined that ''Java'' was far too damaged to retain as a prize and ordered her burned, but not before having her helm salvaged and installed on ''Constitution''.<ref name="Hollis186">Hollis (1900), p. 186.</ref> ''Constitution'' returned to São Salvador on 1 January 1813 to disembark the prisoners of ''Java'', where it met with ''Hornet'' and her two British prizes. Bainbridge ordered ''Constitution'' to sail for Boston on 5 January,<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 236.</ref> being far away from a friendly port and needing extensive repairs, leaving ''Hornet'' behind to continue waiting for ''Bonne Citoyenne'' in the hopes that it would leave the harbor, though it did not.<ref>Toll (2006), pp. 403–404.</ref> ''Java'' was the third British warship in three months to be captured by U.S. Navy, and ''Constitution''{{'}}s victory prompted the British Admiralty to order all Royal Navy frigates not to engage the heavier American frigates one-on-one; only British ships of the line or squadrons were permitted to attack them.<ref Name="NHC6">{{cite web
 |title=Defeat of HMS ''Java'', 1812
 |publisher=Naval History & Heritage Command
 |date=25 October 1999
 |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/war1812/const6.htm
 |access-date=13 July 2011
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011181038/http://www.history.navy.mil/docs/war1812/const6.htm
 |archive-date=11 October 2011
}}</ref><ref>Hollis (1900), p. 189.</ref> ''Constitution'' arrived in Boston on 15 February to even greater celebrations than Hull had received a few months earlier.<ref>Hollis (1900), p. 188.</ref>

===Marblehead and blockade===

Bainbridge determined that ''Constitution'' required new spar deck planking and beams, masts, sails, and rigging, as well as replacement of her copper bottom. However, personnel and supplies were being diverted to the [[Great Lakes]], causing shortages that kept her in Boston intermittently with her sister ships ''Chesapeake'', ''Congress'', and ''President'' for the majority of the year.<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 237.</ref> [[Charles Stewart (1778–1869)|Charles Stewart]] took command on 18 July and struggled to complete the construction and recruitment of a new crew,<ref>Martin (1997), pp. 182, 184.</ref> finally making sail on 31 December. The ship set course for the West Indies to harass British shipping and had captured five merchant ships and the 14-gun {{HMS|Pictou|1813|6}} by late March 1814. It also pursued {{HMS|Columbine|1806|6}} and HMS ''Pique'', though both ships escaped after realizing that it was an American frigate.<ref>Hollis (1900), pp. 190–191.</ref>

Her mainmast split off the coast of Bermuda on 27 March, requiring immediate repair. Stewart set a course for Boston, where British ships {{HMS|Junon|1810|6}} and {{HMS|Tenedos|1812|2}} commenced pursuit on 3 April. Stewart ordered drinking water and food to be cast overboard to lighten her load and gain speed, trusting that her mainmast would hold together long enough for her to make her way into [[Marblehead, Massachusetts]].<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 239.</ref> The last item thrown overboard was the supply of spirits. Upon ''Constitution''{{'}}s arrival in the harbor, the citizens of Marblehead rallied in support, assembling what cannons they possessed at Fort Sewall, and the British called off the pursuit.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 448.</ref> Two weeks later, ''Constitution'' made her way into Boston, where it remained blockaded in port until mid-December.<ref>Hollis (1900), pp. 191–193.</ref>

===HMS ''Cyane'' and HMS ''Levant''===
{{Main|Capture of HMS Cyane}}

Captain [[Sir George Collier, 1st Baronet|George Collier]] of the Royal Navy received command of the 50-gun {{HMS|Leander|1813|6}} and was sent to North America to deal with the American frigates targeting British shipping.<ref name="Gardiner170-1">Gardiner (2006), pp. 170–171.</ref> Meanwhile, Charles Stewart saw his chance to escape from Boston Harbor and made it good on the afternoon of 18 December, and ''Constitution'' again set course for Bermuda.<ref name="Martin191-192">Martin (1997), pp. 191–192.</ref> Collier gathered a squadron consisting of ''Leander'', {{HMS|Newcastle|1813|2}}, and {{HMS|Acasta|1797|2}} and set off in pursuit, but he was unable to overtake her.<ref name="Tracy">Tracy (2006), p. 89.</ref> On 24 December, ''Constitution'' intercepted the merchantman ''Lord Nelson'' and placed a prize crew aboard. ''Constitution'' had left Boston not fully supplied, but ''Lord Nelson''{{'}}s stores supplied a Christmas dinner for the crew.<ref name="Martin191-192"/>

''Constitution'' was cruising off [[Cape Finisterre]] on 8 February 1815 when Stewart learned that the [[Treaty of Ghent]] had been signed. He realized, however, that a state of war still existed until the treaty was ratified, and ''Constitution'' captured the British merchantman ''Susanna'' on 16 February; her cargo of animal hides was valued at $75,000.<ref>Martin (1997), pp. 193–195.</ref>

On 20 February, ''Constitution'' sighted the small British ships ''Cyane'' and {{HMS|Levant|1813|2}} sailing in company and gave chase.<ref name="Abbot XVI" /> ''Cyane'' and ''Levant'' began a series of broadsides against her, but Stewart outmaneuvered both of them and forced ''Levant'' to draw off for repairs. He concentrated fire on ''Cyane'', which soon struck her colors.<ref name="Abbot XVI" /> ''Levant'' returned to engage ''Constitution'' but it turned and attempted to escape when it saw that ''Cyane'' had been defeated.<ref>Hill (1905), p. 172.</ref> ''Constitution'' overtook her and, after several more broadsides, it struck her colors.<ref name="Abbot XVI" /> Stewart remained with his new prizes overnight while ordering repairs to all ships. ''Constitution'' had suffered little damage in the battle, though it was later discovered that it had twelve 32-pound British cannonballs embedded in her hull, none of which had penetrated.<ref>Martin (1997), p. 200.</ref> The trio then set a course for the [[Cape Verde|Cape Verde Islands]] and arrived at Porto Praya on 10 March.<ref name="Abbot XVI" />

The next morning, Collier's squadron was spotted on a course for the harbor, and Stewart ordered all ships to sail immediately;<ref name="Abbot XVI">Abbot 1896, Volume II, Part II, Chapter XVI</ref> he had been unaware until then of Collier's pursuit.<ref>Toll (2006), p. 450.</ref> ''Cyane'' was able to elude the squadron and make sail for America, where it arrived on 10 April, but ''Levant'' was overtaken and recaptured. Collier's squadron was distracted with ''Levant'' while ''Constitution'' made another escape from overwhelming forces.<ref name="Hill175"/>

''Constitution'' set a course towards [[Guinea]] and then west towards Brazil, as Stewart had learned from the capture of ''Susanna'' that {{HMS|Inconstant|1783|6}} was transporting gold bullion back to England, and he wanted her as a prize. ''Constitution'' put into [[Maranhão]] on 2 April to offload her British prisoners and replenish her drinking water.<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 244.</ref> While there, Stewart learned by rumor that the Treaty of Ghent had been ratified, and set course for America, receiving verification of peace at San Juan, Puerto Rico, on 28 April. He then set course for New York and arrived home on 15 May to large celebrations.<ref name="Abbot XVI" /> ''Constitution'' emerged from the war undefeated, though her sister ships ''Chesapeake'' and ''President'' were not so fortunate, having been captured in 1813 and 1815 respectively.<ref name="Chesapeake">{{cite DANFS | title = Chesapeake
| url = http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/c/chesapeake-i.html
| access-date =4 April 2011|link=off}}</ref><ref name="President">{{cite DANFS | title = President | url = http://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/p/president-i.html| access-date =4 April 2011|link=off }}</ref> ''Constitution'' was moved to Boston and placed in ordinary in January 1816, sitting out the [[Second Barbary War]].<ref name="Hill175">Hill (1905), p. 175.</ref>

===Mediterranean Squadron===
Charlestown Navy Yard's commandant Isaac Hull directed a refitting of ''Constitution'' to prepare her for duty with the [[Mediterranean Squadron (United States)|Mediterranean Squadron]] in April 1820. They removed Joshua Humphreys' diagonal riders to make room for two iron freshwater tanks, and they replaced the copper sheathing and timbers below the waterline.<ref>Martin (1997), p. 210.</ref> At the direction of Secretary of the Navy [[Smith Thompson]], it was also subjected to an unusual experiment in which manually operated paddle wheels were fitted to her hull. The paddle wheels were designed to propel her at up to {{convert|3|kn|km/h mph}} if it was ever becalmed, by the crew using the ship's [[Capstan (nautical)|capstan]].<ref>Martin (1997), pp. 211–212.</ref> Initial testing was successful, but Hull and ''Constitution''{{'}}s commanding officer [[Jacob Jones (naval officer)|Jacob Jones]] were reportedly unimpressed with paddle wheels on a US Navy ship. Jones had them removed and stowed in the cargo hold before he departed on 13 May 1821 for a three-year tour of duty in the Mediterranean.<ref name="Hill175" /> On 12 April 1823, it collided with the British merchant ship ''Bicton'' in the Mediterranean Sea, and ''Bicton'' sank with the loss of her captain.<ref name=MC210523>{{Cite news |title=Ship News |newspaper=The Morning Chronicle |date=21 May 1823 |issue=16875 }}</ref>

''Constitution'' otherwise experienced an uneventful tour, sailing in company with {{USS|Ontario|1813|2}} and {{USS|Nonsuch|1813|2}}, until crew behavior during shore leave gave Jones a reputation as a commodore who was lax in discipline. The Navy grew weary of receiving complaints about the crews' antics while in port and ordered Jones to return. ''Constitution'' arrived in Boston on 31 May 1824, and Jones was relieved of command.<ref>Martin (1997), pp. 214, 219–220.</ref> [[Thomas Macdonough]] took command and sailed on 29 October for the Mediterranean under the direction of John Rodgers in {{USS|North Carolina|1820|2}}. With discipline restored, ''Constitution'' resumed uneventful duty. Macdonough resigned his command for health reasons on 9 October 1825.<ref>Jennings (1966), p. 249.</ref> ''Constitution'' put in for repairs during December and into January 1826, until [[Daniel Todd Patterson]] assumed command on 21 February. By August, it had been put into Port Mahon, suffering decay of her spar deck, and it remained there until temporary repairs were completed in March 1827. ''Constitution'' returned to Boston on 4 July 1828 and was placed in reserve.<ref>Hill (1905), p. 176.</ref><ref name="Hollis217">Hollis (1900), p. 217.</ref>