Editing Tuna (section)

==Fishing==
{{redirect|Tuna fishing}}
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Tuna all sizes Pengo.svg|thumb|350px|Maximum reported sizes of tuna species|alt=Bar chart that states ''Thunnus thynnus'' is the largest tuna, at {{Convert|458|cm|in}} followed by ''Thunnus orientalis'' at {{Convert|300|cm|in}}, ''Thunnus obsesus'' at {{Convert|250|cm|in}}, ''Gymnosarda unicolor'' at {{Convert|248|cm|in}}, ''Thunnus maccoyii'' at {{Convert|245|cm|in}}, ''Thunnus albacares'' at {{Convert|239|cm|in}}, ''Gasterochisma melampus'' at {{Convert|164|cm|in}}, ''Thunnus tonggol'' at {{Convert|145|cm|in}}, ''Thunnus alalunga'' at {{Convert|140|cm|in}}, ''Euthynnus alletteratus'' at {{Convert|122|cm|in}}, ''Katsuwonus pelamis'' at {{Convert|108|cm|in}}, ''Thunnus atlanticus'' at {{Convert|108|cm|in}}, ''Allothunnus fallai'' at {{Convert|105|cm|in}}, ''Euthynnus affinis'' at {{Convert|100|cm|in}}, ''Auxis thazard thazard'' at {{Convert|65|cm|in}},''Auxis rochei rochei'' at {{Convert|50|cm|in}}, and ''Auxis rochei eudorax'' at {{Convert|36.5|cm|in}}]]

===Commerce===
Tuna is an important [[commercial fishing|commercial fish]]. The [[International Seafood Sustainability Foundation]] (ISSF) compiled a detailed scientific report on the state of global tuna stocks in 2009, which includes regular updates. According to the ISSF, the most important species for commercial and recreational tuna fisheries are yellowfin (''Thunnus albacares''), bigeye (''T. obesus''), bluefin (''T. thynnus'', ''T. orientalis'', and ''T. macoyii''), albacore (''T. alalunga''), and skipjack (''Katsuwonus pelamis'').<ref name="ISSF">{{cite web |url=http://www.iss-foundation.org/files/b45a4eb2-f9d7-4ed6-87a1-2efe2519baf6/ISSF_A-1%20Introduction.pdf
|title=Status of the World Fisheries for Tuna: Section A-1 – Introduction |publisher=[[International Seafood Sustainability Foundation]] |date= 15 April 2009 |df=dmy-all |access-date=10 November 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327021649/http://www.iss-foundation.org/files/b45a4eb2-f9d7-4ed6-87a1-2efe2519baf6/ISSF_A-1%20Introduction.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2010 }}</ref>

Based on catches from 2007, the report states:

{{Blockquote|Between 1940 and the mid-1960s, the annual world catch of the five principal market species of tunas rose from about 300 thousand tons to about 1 million tons, most of it taken by [[Trolling (fishing)|hook and line]]. With the development of [[Seine fishing|purse-seine]] nets, now the predominant gear, catches have risen to more than 4 million tons annually during the last few years. Of these catches, about 68 percent are from the [[Pacific Ocean]], 22 percent from the [[Indian Ocean]], and the remaining 10 percent from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Skipjack makes up about 60 percent of the catch, followed by yellowfin (24 percent), bigeye (10 percent), albacore (5 percent), and bluefin the remainder. Purse-seines take about 62 percent of the world production, longline about 14 percent, pole and line about 11 percent, and a variety of other gears the remainder.<ref name="ISSF"/>}}
The Australian government alleged in 2006 that [[Japan]] had illegally [[overfished]] southern bluefin by taking 12,000 to 20,000 tonnes per year instead of the agreed upon 6,000 tonnes; the value of such overfishing would be as much as US$2&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2006-10-16/bluefin-tuna-plundering-catches-up-with-japan/1286956 |last=Bradford |first=Gillian |title=Bluefin Tuna Plundering Catches Up With Japan |publisher=ABC News |date=16 October 2006 |access-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> Such overfishing has severely damaged bluefin stocks.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/28/AR2009112801066.html |last=Eilperin |first=Juliet |title=Global approach now favored for marine conservation |newspaper=Washington Post |date=29 November 2009 |access-date=11 August 2013}}</ref> According to the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]], "Japan's huge appetite for tuna will take the most sought-after stocks to the brink of commercial [[extinction]] unless fisheries agree on more rigid quotas".<ref>{{cite news
|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2007/jan/22/japan.conservationandendangeredspecies
|title=Japan warned tuna stocks face extinction
|first=Justin |last=McCurry
|work=The Guardian
|date=22 January 2007
|access-date=2 April 2008
| location=London
}}</ref> Japan's Fisheries Research Agency counters that Australian and New Zealand tuna fishing companies under-report their total catches of southern bluefin tuna and ignore internationally mandated total allowable catch totals.<ref>{{cite news |last=Wright |first=Hillel |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2011/01/09/life/are-japans-fish-lovers-eating-tuna-to-extinction/ |title=Are Japan's fish lovers eating tuna to extinction? |work=[[Japan Times]] |date=9 January 2011| page=7 |access-date=11 August 2013}}</ref>

In recent years, opening day fish auctions at Tokyo's [[Tsukiji fish market]] and [[Toyosu Market]] have seen record-setting prices for bluefin tuna, reflecting market demand. In each of 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2019, new record prices have been set for a single fish&nbsp;– the current record is 333.6&nbsp;million [[japanese yen]] (US$3.1&nbsp;million) for a {{convert|278|kg|lb|abbr=on}} bluefin, or a unit price of JP¥&nbsp;1,200,000/kg (US$5,057/lb). The opening auction price for 2014 plummeted to less than 5% of the previous year's price, which had drawn complaints for climbing "way out of line".<ref>{{cite news|title=Price of tuna nosedives at famous Tokyo auction despite dwindling stocks |url=https://www.thestar.com/business/2014/01/05/price_of_tuna_nosedives_at_famous_tokyo_auction_despite_dwindling_stocks.html |newspaper=[[The Toronto Star]]|access-date=8 February 2014|date=5 January 2014}}</ref> A summary of record-setting auctions are shown in the following table (highlighted values indicate new world records):

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! style="padding:8px;" colspan="7"| Record bluefin tuna auctions at Tokyo's [[Tsukiji fish market]] and [[Toyosu Market]]
|-
! style="padding:0; background:#ffd7d7; color:black;" colspan="7"| <small>(Highlighted field indicates new record price for a single fish)</small>
|-
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;" rowspan="2"| Year
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;" rowspan="2"| Total<br/>weight
! style="padding:0 8px;" colspan="2"| Total sale
! style="padding:0 8px;" colspan="2"| Unit price
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;" rowspan="2"| Source
|-
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;"| ([[japanese yen|JP ¥]])
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;"| (US $)
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;"| (¥ / kg)
! style="padding:0 8px; border-bottom:2px solid black;"| ($ / lb)
|-
| style="padding:0;" 8px;| '''2001'''
| style="padding:0;" 8px;| {{convert|202|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| style="padding:0 8px; background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥20.2&nbsp;million'''
| style="padding:0 8px; background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$173,600'''
| style="padding:0 8px; background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥100,000 / kg'''
| style="padding:0 8px; background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$386 / lb'''
|<ref name="bigtuna" />
|-
| '''2010'''
| {{convert|232|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| ¥16.28&nbsp;million
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$175,000'''
| ¥70,172 / kg
| $343 / lb
|<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8440758.stm |title=Tuna hits highest price in nine years at Tokyo auction |work=BBC News |date=5 January 2010 |access-date=19 September 2012 |first=Roland |last=Buerk}}</ref>
|-
| '''2011'''
| {{convert|342|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥32.49&nbsp;million'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$396,000'''
| ¥95,000 / kg
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$528 / lb'''
|<ref name="bigtuna">{{cite web|title=Fish story: Big tuna sells for record $396,000|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna40921151|publisher=NBCNews.com|access-date=19 September 2012|date=5 January 2011}}</ref>
|-
| '''2012'''
| {{convert|269|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥56.49&nbsp;million'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$736,000'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥210,000 / kg'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$1,247 / lb'''
|<ref>{{cite web|title=A single fish sells for nearly three-quarters of a million dollars|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna45882262|publisher=NBCNews.com|access-date=19 September 2012|date=5 January 2012}}</ref>
|-
| '''2013'''
| {{convert|221|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥155.4&nbsp;million'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$1.76&nbsp;million'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥703,167 / kg'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$3,603 / lb'''
|<ref>{{cite news|title=A bluefin tuna sells for record $1.76M in Tokyo|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/01/04/bluefin-tuna-tokyo-sushi/1810557//|publisher=usatoday.com|access-date=4 January 2013|date=4 January 2013}}</ref>
|-
| '''2019'''
| {{convert|278|kg|lb|abbr=on|disp=br()}}
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥333.6&nbsp;million'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$3.1&nbsp;million'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''¥1,200,000 / kg'''
| style="background:#ffd7d7; color:black;"| '''$5,057 / lb'''
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-tuna-auction-idUSKCN1OZ056|title=Tuna sells for record $3 million in auction at Tokyo's new fish market |date=2019-01-05|work=Reuters |df=dmy-all|access-date=2019-09-04|language=en}}</ref>
|}

In November 2011, a different record was set when a fisherman in [[Massachusetts]] caught an {{convert|881|lb|kg|abbr=on}} tuna. It was captured inadvertently using a dragnet. Due to the laws and restrictions on tuna fishing in the United States, federal authorities impounded the fish because it was not caught with a rod and reel. Because of the tuna's deteriorated condition as a result of the trawl net, the fish sold for just under $5,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.yahoo.com/blogs/sideshow/man-catches-881-pound-tuna-seized-feds-194650751.html |title=Man catches 881-pound tuna, seized by feds &#124; The Sideshow&nbsp;– Yahoo! News |publisher=News.yahoo.com |df=dmy-all |date=2011-11-15 |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" widths="200">
File:TunaFish.JPG|Tuna being weighed on Greek quay-side
File:Tsukiji Fish market and Tuna edit.jpg|Tuna at [[Tsukiji fish market]], Tokyo
File:Tuna cut half japan.jpg|Tuna cut in half for processing at Tsukuji fish market
</gallery>

===Methods===
{{external media
|float=right
|width=240px
|video1=[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5mMI8t7vV0&feature=channel Tuna pole and line fishing] ''BBC Two''
}}

Besides for edible purposes, many tuna species are caught frequently as game, often for recreation or for contests in which money is awarded based on weight. Larger specimens are notorious for putting up a fight while hooked, and have been known to injure people who try to catch them, as well as damage their equipment.

* [[Phoenicia]]n technique for trapping and catching [[Atlantic bluefin tuna]] called ''[[Almadraba]]'', still used today in Portugal, Spain, Morocco and Italy which uses a maze of nets. In Sicily, the same method is called ''[[Tonnara]]''.
* [[Fish cage|Fish farming (cage system)]]<ref name="Whyte Doolette Gorman Craig 2001 Positive Reform"/>
* [[Tuna ranching]]
* [[Longline fishing]]
* [[Purse seine]]s
* Pole and line
* [[Harpoon gun]]
* [[Big game fishing]]
* [[Fish aggregating device]]

===Association with whaling===
In 2005, [[Nauru]], defending its vote from Australian criticism at that year's meeting of the [[International Whaling Commission]], argued that some [[whale]] species have the potential to devastate Nauru's tuna stocks, and that Nauru's food security and economy relies heavily on fishing.<ref>{{cite web|last=Dorney |first=Sean |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2005-06-28/nauru-defends-whaling-vote/2046680 |title=Nauru defends whaling vote. 28/06/2005. ABC News Online |publisher=Abc.net.au |df=dmy-all |date=2005-06-28 |access-date=2012-04-12}}</ref> Despite this, Nauru does not permit [[whaling]] in its own waters and does not allow other fishing vessels to take or intentionally interact with marine mammals in its Exclusive Economic Zone. In 2010 and 2011, Nauru supported Australian proposals<ref name=Aus_PS_mammal>{{cite web|last=Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission |title=Australia Proposals to Address the Impact of Purse Seine Fishing Activity on Cetaceans |url=http://wcpfc.int/system/files/documents/meetings/regular-sessions-commission/eighth-regular-session/delegation-proposals-and-paper/WCPFC8-2011-DP-15B-%28Rev-2%29-Australia-Proposals-Address-Impact-Purse-Seine-Fishing-Activity-Cetaceans.pdf |publisher=WCPFC |access-date=11 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121101065208/http://wcpfc.int/system/files/documents/meetings/regular-sessions-commission/eighth-regular-session/delegation-proposals-and-paper/WCPFC8-2011-DP-15B-%28Rev-2%29-Australia-Proposals-Address-Impact-Purse-Seine-Fishing-Activity-Cetaceans.pdf |archive-date=1 November 2012}}</ref> for a western Pacific-wide ban on tuna purse-seining in the vicinity of marine mammals&nbsp;– a measure which was agreed by the Western and Central Pacific Fisheries Commission at its eighth meeting in March 2012.

===Association with dolphins===
[[Dolphin]]s swim beside several tuna species. These include yellowfin tuna in the eastern Pacific Ocean, but not [[albacore]]. Tuna schools are believed to associate themselves with dolphins for protection against sharks, which are tuna [[predator]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://journalism.berkeley.edu/projects/border/ensenada.html |title=ENSENADA: El Puerto del Atun |publisher=Journalism.berkeley.edu |df=dmy-all |access-date=2010-09-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100524134557/http://journalism.berkeley.edu/projects/border/ensenada.html |archive-date=2010-05-24}}</ref>

Commercial fishing vessels used to exploit this association by searching for dolphin pods. Vessels would encircle the pod with nets to catch the tuna beneath.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dolphin-safe tuna|publisher=Whale and Dolphin Conservation|url=http://www.wdcs-na.org/text/story_details.php?select=308|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927135421/http://www.wdcs-na.org/text/story_details.php?select=308 |df=dmy-all |archive-date=2013-09-27}}</ref> The nets were prone to entangling dolphins, injuring or killing them. Public outcry and new government regulations, which are now monitored by [[NOAA]] have led to more dolphin-friendly methods, now generally involving lines rather than nets. There are neither universal independent inspection programs nor verification of dolphin safety, so these protections are not absolute. According to [[Consumers Union]], the resulting lack of accountability means claims of tuna that is "[[Dolphin safe label|dolphin safe]]" should be given little credence.

Fishery practices have changed to be dolphin friendly, which has caused greater [[bycatch]] including [[shark]]s, [[turtle]]s and other [[oceanic fish]]. Fishermen no longer follow dolphins, but concentrate their fisheries around floating objects such as [[fish aggregation device]]s, also known as FADs, which attract large populations of other organisms. Measures taken thus far to satisfy the public demand to protect dolphins can be potentially damaging to other species as well.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=Southern Fried Science| title=The ecological disaster that is dolphin safe tuna | date=16 February 2009 |url=http://southernfriedscientist.wordpress.com/2009/02/16/the-ecological-disaster-that-is-dolphin-safe-tuna/}}</ref>

===Aquaculture===
Increasing quantities of high-grade tuna caught at sea are reared in net pens and fed bait fish. In Australia, former fishermen raise [[southern bluefin tuna]] (''Thunnus maccoyii'') and another bluefin species.<ref name="Whyte Doolette Gorman Craig 2001 Positive Reform">{{cite journal |last1=Whyte |first1=P. |last2=Doolette |first2=D. J. |last3=Gorman |first3=D. F. |last4=Craig |first4=D. S. |title=Positive Reform of Tuna Farm Diving in South Australia in Response to Government Intervention |journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine |date=2001 |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=124–128 |doi=10.1136/oem.58.2.124 |jstor=27731455 |pmid=11160991 |pmc=1740091 }}</ref> Farming its close relative, the [[Atlantic bluefin tuna]], ''Thunnus thynnus'', is beginning in the [[Mediterranean]], [[North America]] and Japan. [[Hawaii|Hawai{{Okina}}i]] approved permits for the first U.S. offshore farming of [[bigeye tuna]] in water {{Convert|1300|ft|m}} deep in 2009.<ref>
{{cite news
|url=http://phys.org/news175693106.html
|title=Hawaii regulators approve first US tuna farm
|last=McAvoy
|first=Audrey
|agency=Associated Press
|date=24 October 2009
|access-date=11 August 2013
}}</ref>

Japan is the biggest tuna consuming nation and is also the leader in tuna farming research.<ref>
{{cite web
|publisher=LiveScience
|url=http://www.livescience.com/animals/080317-sl-tuna-farming.html
|title=Breeding the Overfished Bluefin Tuna
|author=Susannah F. Locke
|date= 17 March 2008
|access-date=13 May 2013
}}</ref> Japan first successfully farm-hatched and raised bluefin tuna in 1979. In 2002, it succeeded in completing the reproduction cycle and in 2007, completed a third generation.<ref>
{{cite news |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/editorials/archives/2006/09/30/2003329854 |title=The holy grail of fish breeding
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flku.jp/english/aquaculture/index.html |title=Cultivation, seedling production, and selective breeding of bluefin tuna and other fish at the Kinki University Fisheries Laboratory |publisher=Flku.jp |df=dmy-all |access-date=2010-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2008/05/21/FDI910LR9P.DTL&type=printable | first=Carolyn | last=Jung |df=dmy-all | date=2008-05-21 | work=The San Francisco Chronicle | title=The rarest tuna of all&nbsp;– Japan's farmed Kindai}}</ref> The farm breed is known as Kindai tuna. Kindai is the contraction of Kinki University in Japanese (Kinki daigaku).<ref>{{cite web|last=Raisfeld |first=Robin |url=http://nymag.com/restaurants/features/46633/ |title=Can a Farmed Bluefin Tuna Save the Planet? – New York Magazine |publisher=Nymag.com  |df=dmy-all |date=2008-05-04 |access-date=2012-06-16}}</ref> In 2009, Clean Seas, an Australian company which has been receiving assistance from Kinki University<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fnarena.com/index2.cfm?type=dsp_newsitem&n=4213142B-1871-E587-E13DAA02FD0A4316 |title=FNArena |publisher=FNArena |df=dmy-all |date=2009-05-15 |access-date=2010-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?http://www.abc.net.au/stateline/sa/content/2005/s1509579.htm |title=Stateline South Australia |publisher=Abc.net.au |df=dmy-all |access-date=2010-09-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113102602/http://www.abc.net.au/cgi-bin/common/printfriendly.pl?http%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fstateline%2Fsa%2Fcontent%2F2005%2Fs1509579.htm |archive-date=2012-11-13 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news | url=http://www.news.com.au/adelaidenow/story/0,22606,24389186-913,00.html | title=Clean Seas teams up with Japan's Kinki Uni for tuna research | first=Nigel | last=Austin | df=dmy-all | date=2008-09-23 | work=The Advertiser | access-date=24 November 2009 | archive-date=2 December 2012 | archive-url=https://archive.today/20121202225644/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/sa-business-journal/clean-seas-signs-tuna-research-deal/story-e6fredel-1111117560776 | url-status=dead }}</ref> managed to breed southern bluefin tuna in captivity and was awarded the second place in World's Best Invention of 2009 by ''Time'' magazine.<ref name=tankbred>{{cite news|title=The Tank-Bred Tuna|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1934027_1934003_1933946,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091115062251/http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1934027_1934003_1933946,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 November 2009|work=The 50 Best Inventions of 2009|publisher=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|access-date=21 January 2013 |df=dmy-all |date=2009-11-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Aussies Win 'Best Invention' Award|url=http://www.thinkingaustralia.com/news/brief_view.asp?id=1525|publisher=ThinkingAustralia.com|access-date=21 January 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130403110610/http://www.thinkingaustralia.com/news/brief_view.asp?id=1525|archive-date=3 April 2013}}</ref>