Editing Tiwanaku (section)

== Cosmology ==

In many Andean cultures, mountains are venerated<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reinhard |first1=Johan |title=Sacred Mountains: An Ethno-Archaeological Study of High Andean Ruins |journal=Mountain Research and Development |date=1985 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=299–317 |doi=10.2307/3673292 |jstor=3673292 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3673292 |issn=0276-4741}}</ref> and may be considered sacred objects. The site of Tiwanaku is located in the valley between two sacred mountains, [[Pukara_(Guaqui)|Pukara]] and [[Chuqi Q'awa|Chuqi Q’awa]]. At such temples in ancient times, ceremonies were conducted to honor and pay gratitude to the gods and spirits.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bonilla |first1=Heraclio |title=Religious Practices in the Andes and their Relevance to Political Struggle and Development |journal=Mountain Research and Development |pages=336–342 |doi=10.1659/0276-4741(2006)26[336:RPITAA]2.0.CO;2 |date=1 November 2006|volume=26 |issue=4 |s2cid=128460565 |issn=0276-4741 |doi-access=free }}</ref> They were places of worship and rituals that helped unify Andean peoples through shared symbols and [[pilgrimage]] destinations.

Tiwanaku became a center of pre-Columbian religious ceremonies for both the general public and elites. For example, [[human sacrifice]] was used in several pre-Columbian civilizations to appease a god in exchange for good fortune. Excavations of the Akapana at Tiwanaku revealed the remains of sacrificial dedications of humans and camelids.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blom |first1=Deborah E. |last2=Janusek |first2=John Wayne |title=Making Place: Humans as Dedications in Tiwanaku |journal=World Archaeology |date=2004 |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=123–141 |doi=10.1080/0043824042000192623 |jstor=4128306 |s2cid=154741300 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/4128306 |issn=0043-8243}}</ref> Researchers speculate that the Akapana may also have been used as an astronomical observatory. It was constructed so that it was aligned with the peak of [[Quimsachata (Canchis)|Quimsachata]], providing a view of the rotation of the Milky Way from the southern pole.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vranich |first1=Alexei |title=Monumental Perceptions of the Tiwanaku Landscape |journal=Political Landscapes of Capital Cities |date=2016 |pages=181–212 |publisher=University Press of Colorado|doi=10.5876/9781607324690.c005 |jstor=j.ctt1dfnt2b.11 |isbn=9781607324683 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Other structures like [[Kalasasaya]] are positioned to provide optimal views of the sunrise on the Equinox, Summer Solstice, and Winter Solstice. Although the symbolic and functional value of these monuments can only be speculated upon, the Tiwanaku were able to study and interpret the positions of the sun, moon, Milky Way and other celestial bodies well enough to give them a significant role in their architecture.<ref name="Mysteries and discoveries of archae">{{cite book |last1=Magli |first1=Giulio |title=Mysteries and discoveries of archaeoastronomy : from Giza to Easter Island |date=2009 |publisher=Copernicus Books/Springer Science + Business Media, in association with Praxis Pub |location=New York |isbn=978-0-387-76566-2}}</ref>

[[Aymara people|Aymara]] legends place Tiwanaku at the center of the universe, probably because of the importance of its geographical location. The Tiwanaku were highly aware of their natural surroundings and would use them and their understanding of astronomy as reference points in their architectural plans. The most significant landmarks in Tiwanaku are the mountains and Lake Titicaca.<ref>{{cite web |title=Lake Titicaca |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Lake_Titicaca/ |website=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref> The lake level of Lake Titicaca has fluctuated significantly over time. The spiritual importance and location of the lake contributed to the religious significance of Tiwanaku. In the Tiwanaku worldview, Lake Titicaca is the spiritual birthplace of their cosmic beliefs.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tiwanaku and Lake Titikaka – Bolivia |url=https://sacredland.org/tiwanaku-lake-titikaka-bolivia/ |website=Sacred Land}}</ref> According to Incan mythology, Lake Titicaca is the birthplace of [[Viracocha]], who was responsible for creating the sun, moon, people, and the cosmos. In the Kalasasaya at Tiwanaku, carved atop a monolith known as the [[Gate of the Sun]], is a front-facing figure holding a [[spear-thrower]]<ref>[[Max Uhle]]: ''Wesen und Ordnung der altperuanischen Kulturen.'' Colloquium Verlag, 1959, p.&nbsp;62: The staff in the figure's right hand clearly indicates the spear-thrower due to the [[hook]] at the top, which - as is often the case with real spear throwers - has the shape of a bird („Der Stab in der rechten Hand der Figur bezeichnet durch den am oberen Ende sitzenden Haken, der — wie so oft bei wirklichen Speerschleudern — die Gestalt eines Vogels hat, deutlich die Speerschleuder.“)</ref> and snuff. Some speculate that this is a representation of Viracocha. However, it is also possible that this figure represents a deity that the Aymara refer to as "Tunuupa" who, like Viracocha, is associated with legends of creation and destruction.

The [[Aymara people|Aymara]], who are thought to be descendants of the Tiwanaku, have a complex belief system similar to the cosmology of several other Andean civilizations. They believe in the existence of three spaces: Arajpacha, the upper world; Akapacha, the middle or inner world; and Manqhaoacha, the lower world.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cosmovision of the Aymara people in Chile for trekkers |url=https://www.trekkingchile.com/en/chile-info/aymara/cosmovision/ |website=Trekkingchile EN}}</ref> Often associated with the cosmos and Milky Way, the upper world is considered to be where celestial beings live. The middle world is where all living things are, and the lower world is where life itself is inverted.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Quilter |first1=Jeffrey |title=The ancient central Andes |date=2014 |location=Abingdon, Oxon |isbn=9780415673105 |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-Ancient-Central-Andes/Quilter/p/book/9780415673105 |language=en |access-date=2021-05-04 |archive-date=2021-05-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210503234637/https://www.routledge.com/The-Ancient-Central-Andes/Quilter/p/book/9780415673105 |url-status=dead }}</ref>