Editing Third Anglo-Dutch War (section)

== 1673 ==
=== Overview ===
After the French failed to breach the Holland Water Line, the Anglo-French fleet was tasked with defeating the Dutch navy, allowing them to blockade the Dutch coast and threaten the Republic with starvation, or land an invasion force. However, poor co-ordination meant they failed to exploit their numerical advantage, and De Ruyter was able to prevent his fleet being overwhelmed. Although the [[Battle of Texel]] on 21 August was inconclusive, it was a strategic Dutch victory as the damage inflicted on the English fleet forced them to return home for repairs.{{sfn|Boxer|1969|p=89}}

Never popular to begin with, English support for the war dissolved along with hopes for a quick victory. In late 1673, the French withdrew from the Republic, and focused on conquering the Spanish Netherlands, a frightening prospect for most English politicians. Combined with a Dutch pamphlet campaign claiming Charles had agreed to restore Catholicism, Parliament refused to fund the war, while the level of opposition made Charles fear for his own position. In February 1674, the [[Second Peace of Westminster]] ended the war; it was greeted with popular enthusiasm in both countries, not least by commercial interests in Amsterdam and London, and the treaty was ratified with exceptional speed.{{sfn|Boxer|1969|p=91}}

=== Naval battles ===
[[File:The First Battle of Schooneveld, 28 May 1673 van de Velde RMG BHC0305.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|''Battle of Schooneveld'' by [[Willem van de Velde the Elder|Van de Velde the Elder]]]]

In the first two wars, both navies, particularly the Dutch, employed aggressive tactics that often resulted in heavy ship losses for the defeated side.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|pp=130, 138}} In the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the priority was to minimise losses, and it was common for fleets to engage using the "[[Line of battle|line-ahead]]" formation, an essentially defensive approach; despite inflicting considerable damage, neither side lost any ships at the Texel.{{sfn|Palmer|1997|p=148}}

When the Water Line froze during the winter of 1673, the French were unable to break it,{{sfn|Troost|2001|p=100}} thwarted by thin ice and companies of Dutch sailors equipped with [[ice skate]]s, under [[Johan de Liefde]].{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=255}} Attempts in the spring to drain the northern part of the line or cross on rafts also proved unsuccessful.{{sfn|Panhuysen|2009|pp=337–343}} With an eastern approach impractical, the Royal Navy was ordered to blockade the coast in co-operation with a French squadron; if possible, they were to land an invasion force, although how this would be accomplished was unclear.{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=81}} Lacking experience of amphibious operations, this meant capturing a Dutch port, despite limited knowledge of the dangerous [[shoals]] protecting their approaches.{{sfn|Doedens|Mulder|2016|p=169}}

[[File:Edward Spragge (c 1629 - 1673), Admiral of the Blue, by Peter Cross.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.8|Sir [[Edward Spragge]], killed at the [[Battle of Texel]]]]

Hoping to unnerve the Dutch, Prince Rupert leaked information claiming his fleet was accompanied by ships carrying an [[Blackheath Army|invasion force]]; in reality, it remained in [[Great Yarmouth]], and was in any case insufficient for the task.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=260}} In May, the English fleet of 81 ships approached the Dutch coast, while De Ruyter's 55 ships took up a defensive position in the [[Schooneveld]].{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=83}} Early on 7 June, Prince Rupert detached a light squadron, hoping to tempt De Ruyter into battle where the Allies could use their superior numbers. The alternative was forcing the Dutch fleet into [[Hellevoetsluis]], where they could be blockaded while transports brought troops over to assault [[Brielle|Den Briel]] or [[Vlissingen]].{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=261}}

However, De Ruyter's speed of response allowed him to attack before the main Allied fleet was ready, launching the [[Battle of Schooneveld|First Battle of the Schooneveld]].{{sfn|Jenkins|1973|p=52}} At Solebay the previous year, the French squadron had sailed in the opposite direction to that of the English; to counter accusations this had been deliberate, they now formed the centre squadron. However, their inexperience and poor positioning left gaps which allowed De Ruyter to sail through the Allied centre.{{sfn|Jenkins|1973|p=52}}{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=262}}

The French commanders had been ordered by Louis not to risk their ships, but focus on learning from the English and Dutch.{{sfn|Doedens|Mulder|2016|p=172}} They therefore disengaged, later writing enthusiastic reports about the tactical genius of the manoeuvre used by De Ruyter.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=261}} Their defection threatened to cut off the Allied rear under Sir [[Edward Spragge]]; he took his own squadron to attack Tromp, who was also being engaged by Rupert, but fear of running aground meant this was not done with any conviction. Now split into four parts and in considerable confusion, the Allies withdrew after nine hours of fighting; they were not pursued, since De Ruyter decided not to take any unnecessary risks.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|pp=262–263}}

[[File:Battle of Texel August 21 1673 (Slag bij Kijkduin) - Nightly battle between Cornelis Tromp and Eward Spragg (Willem van de Velde II, 1707).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Battle of Texel'' (1707) by [[Willem van de Velde the Younger]]]]

The Allies continued to hold their position off the Dutch coast; on 14 June, De Ruyter took advantage of favourable winds and launched the [[Battle of Schooneveld|Second Battle of the Schooneveld]]. Once again, this caused chaos in the unprepared Allied fleet, which suffered severe damage and returned to the [[Thames]] for repairs.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|pp=264–265}} In late July, Rupert put to sea again, hoping to draw the Dutch north by feinting against The Hague or [[Den Helder]]; although De Ruyter preferred to remain where he was, he was ordered out to escort a valuable incoming [[Dutch East India Company]] treasure fleet.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|pp=268–269}} While both sides suffered severe damage in the resulting [[Battle of Texel]], Prince Rupert was forced to return home for repairs.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=272}}

The conduct of the French led to widespread recriminations and accusations they had failed to support their English colleagues. Whether this was fair remains a matter of dispute; in all three battles, De Ruyter took advantage of Allied deficiencies in fighting instructions and signalling.{{sfn|Davies|2008|p=268}} Regardless, it deepened suspicions between the English and French, further undercutting popular support for the war, while ending any hopes of starving the Dutch through a naval blockade. The result was an overwhelming strategic victory for the Dutch.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=272}} even though four ships of the Spice Fleet had fallen into Allied hands.{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=274}} For De Ruyter, the successful campaign, by repelling attacks by much superior fleets to save his homeland, had been the highlight of his career, as the English readily acknowledged: [[James II of England|the Duke of York]] concluded that among admirals, "he was the greatest that ever to that time was in the world".{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=85}} The English had to abandon their plans for an invasion from the sea,{{sfn|Prud'homme van Reine|2015|p=272}} and the large costs of repair troubled Parliament.

On 24 August 1673, the Dutch recaptured the city [[New Amsterdam]] (renamed "New York" by the English) under [[Admiral]] [[Cornelis Evertsen the Youngest]] and Captain [[Anthony Colve]].<ref>Roosevelt, Theodore. "[http://www.bartleby.com/171/4.html IV. New Amsterdam becomes New York The Beginning of English Rule. 1664–1674]", in ''New York: A Sketch of the City's Social, Political, and Commercial Progress from the First Dutch Settlement to Recent Times'', (New York, Charles Scribner & Sons, 1906).</ref>  Evertsen renamed the city "[[New Orange]]".<ref>Barrevald, Dirk J. ''From New Amsterdam to New York: The Founding of New York by the Dutch in July 1625''. (Lincoln, Nebraska, Writers Club Press, 2001), 248.</ref> However, Dutch rule ended on 10 November 1674 with the order to implement the provisions of the [[Treaty of Westminster (1674)|Treaty of Westminster]].

=== Anti-war sentiment in England ===
[[File:Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|[[Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Anthony Ashley Cooper]], who led opposition to the war]]

In previous conflicts, investing in privateers had been very profitable for the English, but from 1672 to 1673 Dutch raiders captured over 2,800 French and English ships, far more than their counterparts,{{sfn|Shomette|Haslach|2002|p=282}} The province of Zealand alone operated 120 privateers.{{sfn|Doedens|Mulder|2016|p=167}} Having failed to blockade the Dutch coast, English merchants were excluded from the vital [[Baltic maritime trade (c. 1400–1800)|Baltic trade]] in shipbuilding materials. In addition, the Dutch re-capture of [[New Amsterdam]] and attacks on English possessions in [[India]] caused further commercial damage.{{sfn|Panhuysen|2016|p=83}} These losses compounded existing doubts about the war, which many felt was unjustified.{{sfn|Rodger|2004|p=86}}

Stabilising their military position also restored Dutch credit, allowing the Estates to expand the military budget to a hundred million guilders, three times annual tax revenues.{{sfn|Panhuysen|2016|p=83}} Louis had attacked the Republic hoping for a quick victory; once this failed, he faced a war of attrition on multiple fronts. In July 1673, French troops [[Siege of Maastricht (1673)|captured Maastricht]]; on 30 August, the Dutch agreed the Alliance of the Hague with Leopold and Spain.{{sfn|Panhuysen|2009|p=372}} In October, they were joined by [[Charles IV, Duke of Lorraine]], whose duchy was occupied by France, forming the Quadruple Alliance.{{sfn|Panhuysen|2009|p=383}}

William made sure the peace negotiations held in Cologne with France and England failed.{{sfn|Troost|2001|p=123}} In September, he recaptured [[Naarden]], Münster and Cologne made peace, and French troops withdrew from the Dutch Republic, retaining only [[Grave, Netherlands|Grave]] and Maastricht.{{sfn|Young|2004|p=132}} With victory over the Dutch now unlikely, the war became one for control of Flanders, an issue that divided England and France. Tensions between the two increased when Arlington's former secretary [[Peter du Moulin]] fled to the Republic in early 1673. He started a propaganda campaign, flooding England with pamphlets accusing Charles and Louis of conspiring to make the country Catholic again.{{sfn|Troost|2001|pp=126–127}}

[[File:Mary of Modena by William Wissig1.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Mary of Modena]]; her marriage to [[James II of England|James]] increased opposition to the war|alt=An informal portrait of Mary. She has a long handsome face, dark eyes and black hair. Her hair, her brown satin dress and plain linen undergarment are in fashionable disarray. She clasps a white dog.]]

Many were convinced of its truth, particularly when Charles gave permission for his [[James II of England|brother and heir James]] to marry [[Mary of Modena]], a devout Catholic. In February 1673, Parliament refused to approve further taxes unless Charles withdrew his proposed Indulgence and accepted a [[Test Act]] barring Catholics from public office.{{sfn|Hutton|1989|pp=345–346}} In June 1673, James resigned as [[Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom|Lord High Admiral]], which was seen as confirmation of rumours he had secretly become a Catholic and could not comply with the Test Act.{{sfn|Troost|2005|p=126}} As Charles had no legitimate offspring, James' marriage now presented the strong prospect of a Catholic dynasty ruling England in the future.{{sfn|Troost|2001|p=131}}

Buckingham, who learned of the secret provisions of the Treaty of Dover the previous year, reacted to the changed public mood by leaking them to other politicians, including Arlington. As a result, the [[Cabal Ministry]] joined those advocating peace with the Dutch; shocked by the revelation of Charles' agreement with Louis, [[Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury|Lord Shaftesbury]] began to consider removing the [[House of Stuart]] entirely. With his backing, [[John Locke]] developed the legal concepts that appeared in his work the [[Two Treatises of Government]], a general denunciation of [[absolute monarchy]].{{sfn|Laslett|1960|p=7}}