Editing Sydney (section)

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Sydney}}

===Topography===
[[File:Sydney, Australia by Sentinel-2.jpg|thumb|Sydney lies on a [[submergent coastline]] where the ocean level has risen to flood deep [[ria]]s.]]
Sydney is a coastal basin with the [[Tasman Sea]] to the east, the [[Blue Mountains (New South Wales)|Blue Mountains]] to the west, the Hawkesbury River to the north, and the [[Woronora Plateau]] to the south.

Sydney spans two geographic regions. The [[Cumberland Plain]] lies to the south and west of the Harbour and is relatively flat. The [[Hornsby Plateau]] is located to the north and is dissected by steep valleys. The flat areas of the south were the first to be developed; it was not until the construction of the Sydney Harbour Bridge that the northern reaches became more heavily populated. [[Beaches in Sydney|Seventy surf beaches]] can be found along its coastline, with Bondi Beach being the most famous.

The [[Nepean River]] wraps around the western edge of the city and becomes the Hawkesbury River before reaching [[Broken Bay]]. Most of Sydney's water storages can be found on tributaries of the Nepean River. The [[Parramatta River]] is mostly industrial and drains a large area of Sydney's western suburbs into Port Jackson. The southern parts of the city are drained by the [[Georges River]] and the [[Cooks River]] into Botany Bay.

There is no single definition of the boundaries of Sydney. The Australian Statistical Geography Standard definition of Greater Sydney covers {{cvt|12369|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=off}} and includes the local government areas of [[Central Coast Council (New South Wales)|Central Coast]] in the north, [[City of Hawkesbury|Hawkesbury]] in the north-west, [[City of Blue Mountains|Blue Mountains]] in the west, [[Sutherland Shire]] in the south, and [[Wollondilly Shire|Wollondilly]] in the south-west.<ref name="AU Stats-2022">{{Cite web |date=5 October 2022 |title=Australian Statistical Geography Standard (ASGS) Edition 3 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/standards/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3/jul2021-jun2026 |access-date=29 January 2022 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |archive-date=27 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127054537/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/standards/australian-statistical-geography-standard-asgs-edition-3/jul2021-jun2026 |url-status=live }}</ref> The local government area of the [[City of Sydney]] covers about 26 square kilometres from [[Garden Island (New South Wales)|Garden island]] in the east to Bicentennial Park in the west, and south to the suburbs of Alexandria and [[Rosebery, New South Wales|Rosebery]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 August 2020 |title=Areas of Service |url=https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/areas-of-service |access-date=29 December 2022 |website=City of Sydney |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229102646/https://www.cityofsydney.nsw.gov.au/areas-of-service |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Geology===
[[File:South Head, Sydney Harbour.jpg|alt=|thumb|Almost all of the exposed rocks around Sydney are [[Sydney sandstone]].]]
Sydney is made up of mostly [[Triassic]] rock with some recent [[igneous]] dykes and [[volcanic]] necks (typically found in the [[Prospect dolerite intrusion]], west of Sydney).<ref>[https://australian.museum/learn/minerals/shaping-earth/igneous-intrusions/ Igneous intrusions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101091122/https://australian.museum/learn/minerals/shaping-earth/igneous-intrusions/ |date=1 November 2021 }} by the [[Australian Museum]]. 13 November 2018. Retrieved 1 November 2021.</ref> The [[Sydney Basin]] was formed in the early Triassic period.<ref name="Sydney Basin"/> The sand that was to become the sandstone of today was laid down between 360 and 200 million years ago. The sandstone has [[shale]] lenses and fossil riverbeds.<ref name="Sydney Basin"/> The [[continental shelf]] of [[Australia (continent)|Australia]] is only {{cvt|25.9|km|mi|1|abbr=off}} away from the coast of Sydney, and that is where the [[Tasman Abyssal Plain]] lies.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Exclusive Getaway|title= Game Fishing - Seasonal Guide|url=https://www.sydneyharbourexclusive.com/sydney-game-fishing-scene/ |access-date=29 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |publisher=[[Department of Climate Change, Energy, the Environment and Water]]|title= Seabed habitat mapping of the continental shelf of NSW|url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/-/media/OEH/Corporate-Site/Documents/Water/Coasts/Research/seabed-habitat-mapping-continental-shelf-nsw-101057.pdf |author1=Alan Jordan|author2=Peter Davies|author3=Tim Ingleton|author4=Edwina Foulsham|author5=Joe Neilson|author6=Tim Pritchard|access-date=29 December 2024}}</ref>  

The [[Sydney Basin]] bioregion includes coastal features of cliffs, beaches, and estuaries. Deep river valleys known as [[ria]]s were carved during the Triassic period in the [[Hawkesbury sandstone]] of the coastal region. The rising sea level between 18,000 and 6,000 years ago flooded the rias to form estuaries and deep harbours.<ref name="Sydney Basin">{{cite web |publisher=Office of Environment and Heritage |date=2014 |url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/bioregions/SydneyBasin-Landform.htm |title=Sydney Basin |access-date=12 July 2014 |archive-date=8 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708125627/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/bioregions/SydneyBasin-Landform.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Port Jackson, better known as Sydney Harbour, is one such [[ria]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Latta |first=David |date=2006 |url=http://qa.mpiweb.org/Archive?id=3918 |title=Showcase destinations Sydney, Australia: the harbour city |access-date=12 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140409105144/http://qa.mpiweb.org/Archive?id=3918 |archive-date=9 April 2014}}</ref> Sydney features two major soil types: [[Sand|sandy soil]]s (which originate from the Hawkesbury sandstone) and [[clay]] (which are from shales and [[volcanic rock]]s), though some soils may be a mixture of the two.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Office of Environment and Heritage |date=7 November 2019 |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/get-involved/sydney-nature/gardens/soils |title=Soils for nature |access-date=26 September 2020 |archive-date=20 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020204913/https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/get-involved/sydney-nature/gardens/soils |url-status=live }}</ref>

Directly overlying the older Hawkesbury sandstone is the [[Wianamatta shale]], a geological feature found in western Sydney that was deposited in connection with a large [[river delta]] during the [[Middle Triassic]]. The Wianamatta shale generally comprises fine grained [[sedimentary rock]]s such as shales, [[mudstone]]s, [[ironstone]]s, [[siltstone]]s and [[laminite]]s, with less common sandstone units.<ref name="basinguide">{{cite book |first1=Chris |last1=Herbert |first2=Robin |last2=Helby |title=A Guide to the Sydney basin |edition=1 |publisher=Geological Survey of New South Wales |location=Maitland |year=1980 |isbn=0-7240-1250-8 |page=582}}</ref> The Wianamatta Group is made up of [[Bringelly Shale]], [[Minchinbury Sandstone]] and [[Ashfield Shale]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=William |first1=E |last2=Airey |first2=DW |title=A Review of the Engineering Properties of the Wianamatta Group Shales |journal=Proceedings 8th Australia New Zealand Conference on Geomechanics: Consolidating Knowledge |location=Barton, ACT |publisher=Australian Geomechanics Society |date=1999 |pages=641–647 |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=736896154066797;res=IELENG |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080814224742/http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=736896154066797;res=IELENG |archive-date=14 August 2008 |isbn=1864450029}}</ref>

===Ecology===
{{further|Ecology of Sydney}}
[[File:Western Sydney parklands 18.jpg|thumb|Typical [[grassland|grassy]] woodland in the Sydney metropolitan area]]
The most prevalent [[vegetation|plant communities]] in the Sydney region are grassy woodlands (i.e. [[savanna]]s)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegClass.aspx?vegclassname=Coastal+Valley+Grassy+Woodlands&habitat=C |title=Coastal Valley Grassy Woodlands |publisher=NSW Environment & Heritage |access-date=15 December 2019 |archive-date=29 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929182846/https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegClass.aspx?vegclassname=Coastal+Valley+Grassy+Woodlands&habitat=C |url-status=live }}</ref> and some pockets of dry [[sclerophyll]] forests,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegFormation.aspx?formationName=Dry+sclerophyll+forests+(shrub%2Fgrass+sub-formation) |title=Dry sclerophyll forests (shrub/grass sub-formation) |publisher=NSW Environment & Heritage |access-date=15 October 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161018235038/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegFormation.aspx?formationName=Dry+sclerophyll+forests+(shrub%2Fgrass+sub-formation) |url-status=live }}</ref> which consist of [[eucalyptus]] trees, [[casuarina]]s, [[melaleuca]]s, [[corymbia]]s and [[angophora]]s, with shrubs (typically [[Acacia|wattles]], [[callistemon]]s, [[grevillea]]s and [[banksia]]s), and a semi-continuous grass in the [[understory]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegFormation.aspx?formationName=Dry+sclerophyll+forests+(shrubby+sub-formation) |title=Dry sclerophyll forests (shrubby sub-formation) |publisher=NSW Environment & Heritage |access-date=16 December 2019 |archive-date=19 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230719022223/https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesapp/VegFormation.aspx?formationName=Dry+sclerophyll+forests+(shrubby+sub-formation) |url-status=live }}</ref> The plants in this community tend to have rough, spiky leaves due to low [[soil fertility]]. Sydney also features a few areas of wet sclerophyll forests in the wetter, elevated areas in the [[Hills District, New South Wales|north]] and [[North Shore (Sydney)|northeast]]. These forests are defined by straight, tall tree [[canopy (biology)|canopies]] with a moist understory of soft-leaved shrubs, [[tree ferns]] and herbs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegFormation.aspx?formationName=Wet+sclerophyll+forests+(grassy+sub-formation) |title=Wet sclerophyll forests (grassy sub-formation) |publisher=NSW Environment & Heritage |access-date=16 March 2017 |archive-date=4 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170304072229/http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/VegFormation.aspx?formationName=Wet+sclerophyll+forests+(grassy+sub-formation) |url-status=live }}</ref>

The predominant vegetation community in Sydney is the [[Cumberland Plain Woodland]] in [[Western Sydney]] ([[Cumberland Plain]]),<ref>{{cite book |author=Earth Resource Analysis PL |year=1998 |title=Cumberland Plains Woodland: Trial Aerial Photographic interpretation of remnant woodlands, Sydney |type=Unpublished report for the NSW National Parks and Wildlife, Hurstville}}</ref> followed by the [[Sydney Turpentine-Ironbark Forest]] in the Inner West and [[Northern Sydney]],<ref name = environment>[https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/RecoveringCumberlandPlain.pdf Recovering bushland on the Cumberland Plain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220912090255/https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/resources/nature/RecoveringCumberlandPlain.pdf |date=12 September 2022 }} Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW). (2005). Recovering Bushland on the Cumberland Plain: Best practice guidelines for the management and restoration of bushland. Department of Environment and Conservation (NSW), Sydney. Retrieved 12 September 2022.</ref> the [[Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub]] in the coastline and the [[Blue Gum High Forest]] scantily present in the North Shore – all of which are critically endangered.<ref name="Sydney Blue Gum High Forest of the Sydney Basin">{{cite web|title=Sydney Blue Gum High Forest|url=http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/sydney-blue-gum.pdf|work=Nationally Threatened Species and Ecological Communities|publisher=Environment.gov.au|access-date=16 May 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618175310/http://environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/pubs/sydney-blue-gum.pdf|archive-date=18 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub of the Sydney Region|work=[[Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment]]|url=https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/env/consultations/890806ae-857e-4034-914c-97791e6f2f36/files/consultation-guide-eastern-suburbs-banksia-scrub.pdf|access-date=15 September 2022|archive-date=14 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914052316/https://www.dcceew.gov.au/sites/default/files/env/consultations/890806ae-857e-4034-914c-97791e6f2f36/files/consultation-guide-eastern-suburbs-banksia-scrub.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The city also includes the [[Sydney Sandstone Ridgetop Woodland]] found in [[Ku-ring-gai Chase National Park]] on the [[Hornsby Plateau]] to the north.<ref name=ryde>{{cite web|title=''Urban Bushland in the Ryde LGA – Sydney Sandstone Ridgetop Woodland''|work=Ryde Council|url=https://www.ryde.nsw.gov.au/files/assets/public/environment/urban-bushland-in-the-ryde-lga.pdf|access-date=15 November 2018|archive-date=22 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322021413/http://www.ryde.nsw.gov.au/files/assets/public/environment/urban-bushland-in-the-ryde-lga.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

Sydney is home to dozens of [[birds of Australia|bird]] species,<ref>Hindwood, K. A. and McCill, A. R., 1958. ''The Birds of Sydney'' (Cumberland Plain) New South Wales. Royal Zoological Society New South Wales.</ref> which commonly include the [[Australian raven]], [[Australian magpie]], [[crested pigeon]], [[noisy miner]] and the [[pied currawong]]. [[Introduced species|Introduced]] bird species ubiquitously found in Sydney are the [[common myna]], [[common starling]], [[house sparrow]] and the [[spotted dove]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Finding Australian Birds |url=http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/6518.htm |author1=Dolby, Tim |author2=Clarke, Rohan |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |year=2014 |isbn=9780643097667 |access-date=10 July 2017 |archive-date=12 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160112195115/http://www.publish.csiro.au/pid/6518.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Reptiles of Australia|Reptile]] species are also numerous and predominantly include [[skink]]s.<ref>Cogger, H.G. (2000). ''Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia.'' Reed New Holland.</ref><ref>Green, D., 1973. -Re reptiles of the outer north-western suburbs of Sydney. Herpetofauna 6 (2): 2–5.</ref> Sydney has a few [[mammals of Australia|mammal]] and [[Spiders of Australia|spider]] species, such as the [[grey-headed flying fox]] and the [[Sydney funnel-web]], respectively,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nqr.farmonline.com.au/news/state/agribusiness-and-general/general/sydneys-flying-foxes-now-bundys-problem/2616870.aspx |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121230091602/http://nqr.farmonline.com.au/news/state/agribusiness-and-general/general/sydneys-flying-foxes-now-bundys-problem/2616870.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=30 December 2012 |title=Sydney's flying foxes now Bundy's problem |publisher=North Queensland Register |date=2 August 2012 |access-date=22 February 2014}}</ref><ref name="Whyte-2017">{{Cite book |title=A Field Guide to Spiders of Australia |last1=Whyte |first1=Robert |last2=Anderson |first2=Greg |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |year=2017 |location=Clayton VIC}}</ref> and has a huge diversity of [[Marine life|marine species]] inhabiting its harbour and beaches.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Underwater Sydney |last1=Falkner |first1=Inke |last2=Turnbull |first2=John |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |year=2019 |isbn=9781486311194 |location=Clayton South, Victoria}}</ref>

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Sydney|Severe weather events in Sydney}}
[[File:Sydney storm clouds.jpg|thumb|A summer storm over Sydney Harbour]]
Under the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen–Geiger classification]], Sydney has a [[humid subtropical climate]] (''Cfa'')<ref>{{cite web |title=Modelling and simulation of seasonal rainfall |publisher=Centre for Computer Assisted Research Mathematics and its Applications (CARMA) |quote=Brisbane and Sydney each have a humid sub-tropical or temperate climate with no pronounced dry season...the classification is Cfa |date=20 May 2014 |url=https://www.carma.newcastle.edu.au/jon/matcom.pdf |access-date=25 February 2016 |archive-date=13 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190313193032/https://www.carma.newcastle.edu.au/jon/matcom.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> with "warm, sometimes hot" summers and "generally mild",<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/travel/holiday-weather/australasia/australia/sydney |title=Sydney holiday weather |publisher=[[Met Office]] |access-date=29 August 2023 |archive-date=29 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829114341/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/travel/holiday-weather/australasia/australia/sydney |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=bom2>{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/water/nwa/2017/sydney/climateandwater/climateandwater.shtml |title=Sydney: Climate and water |publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology]] |date = April 2017|access-date=20 April 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.australia.com/en/facts-and-planning/weather-in-australia/sydney-weather.html |title=WEATHER IN SYDNEY |website=Australia.com |date=23 May 2023 |publisher=[[Tourism Australia]] |access-date=29 August 2023 |archive-date=29 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230829114342/https://www.australia.com/en/facts-and-planning/weather-in-australia/sydney-weather.html |url-status=live }}</ref> to <!-- Please read the note after "cool" before changing it. -->"cool"<!-- The authoritative source supporting this specifically says "cool", not "mild". Do not change it without providing more sources supporting a change and note that "cool" must be retained. For more information, please see the talk page discussion. --> winters.<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate and the Sydney 2000 Olympic Games |work=Australian Government |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |date=24 September 2007 |url=http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article32000?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue=2000&num=&view= |access-date=21 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610031914/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Previousproducts/1301.0Feature%20Article32000?opendocument&tabname=Summary&prodno=1301.0&issue=2000&num=&view= |archive-date=10 June 2008}}</ref> The [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation]], the [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] and the [[Southern Annular Mode]]<ref name= "ABC news">{{Cite web |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-14/southern-annular-mode-and-how-it-affects-our-weather/10106134 |title=Southern Annular Mode: The climate 'influencer' you may not have heard of |website=ABC News |date=14 August 2018 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819004847/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-08-14/southern-annular-mode-and-how-it-affects-our-weather/10106134 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="BOM71">{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs71.pdf |title=Special Climate Statement 71—severe fire weather conditions in southeast Queensland and northeast New South Wales in September 2019 |date=24 September 2019 |website=[[Bureau of Meteorology]] |access-date=5 January 2020 |archive-date=9 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109060418/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs71.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> play an important role in determining Sydney's weather patterns: [[drought]] and [[Bushfires in Australia|bushfire]] on the one hand, and storms and flooding on the other, associated with the opposite [[Effects of the El Niño–Southern Oscillation in Australia|phases of the oscillation in Australia]]. The weather is [[sea breeze|moderated]] by proximity to the ocean, and more extreme temperatures are recorded in the inland western suburbs because Sydney CBD is more affected by the [[oceanic climate]] drivers than the western suburbs.<ref name= "MDPI">{{Cite journal |title=Impact of Accelerated Climate Change on Maximum Temperature Differences between Western and Coastal Sydney |journal=  Climate|date=26 March 2023 |doi=10.3390/cli11040076 |doi-access=free |last1=Bubathi |first1=Varsha |last2=Leslie |first2=Lance |last3=Speer |first3=Milton |last4=Hartigan |first4=Joshua |last5=Wang |first5=Joanna |last6=Gupta |first6=Anjali |volume=11 |issue=4 |page=76 |bibcode=2023Clim...11...76B }}</ref><ref name="acn" />

At Sydney's primary weather station at [[Sydney Observatory|Observatory Hill]], extreme temperatures have ranged from {{cvt|45.8|C|1}} on 18 [[Angry Summer|January 2013]] to {{cvt|2.1|C|1}} on 22 June 1932.<ref>{{BoM Aust stats|site_ref=cw_066062_All|site_name=Sydney (Observatory Hill) |access-date=15 November 2013}}</ref><ref>Bureau of Meteorology. 2006. [http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/media_releases/nsw/20060201.shtml Climate summary for Sydney, January 2006] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130902015815/http://www.bom.gov.au/announcements/media_releases/nsw/20060201.shtml |date=2 September 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Creagh |first=Sunanda |title=Sydney smashes temperature records but heatwave nearly over |url=http://theconversation.edu.au/sydney-smashes-temperature-records-but-heatwave-nearly-over-11689 |work=The Conversation |publisher=The Conversation Media Group |access-date=21 January 2013 |archive-date=21 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221025130/https://theconversation.com/sydney-smashes-temperature-records-but-heatwave-nearly-over-11689 |url-status=live }}</ref> An average of 14.9 days a year have temperatures at or above {{cvt|30|C|0}} in the central business district (CBD).<ref name="acn">{{cite web |title=Climate statistics for Australian locations |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_066062_All.shtml |publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=15 November 2013 |archive-date=24 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524103834/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_066062_All.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> In contrast, the metropolitan area averages between 35 and 65 days, depending on the suburb.<ref>Torok, S. and Nicholls, N. 1996. A historical annual temperature dataset for Australia. Aust. Met. Mag., 45, 251–60.</ref> The hottest day in the metropolitan area occurred in [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]] on 4 January 2020, where a high of {{cvt|48.9|C|F}} was recorded.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/penrith-press/penrith-hits-record-temperature-of-485c-as-heatwave-strikes-nsw/news-story/dcf054647fa47a6fb4e8195515d835fc |title=Penrith hits record temperature of 48.9C as heatwave strikes NSW |website=Daily Telegraph |access-date=6 January 2020 |archive-date=5 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200105001415/https://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/newslocal/penrith-press/penrith-hits-record-temperature-of-485c-as-heatwave-strikes-nsw/news-story/dcf054647fa47a6fb4e8195515d835fc |url-status=live }}</ref> The average annual temperature of the sea ranges from {{cvt|18.5|C|F}} in September to {{cvt|23.7|C|F}} in February.<ref>[https://www.seatemperature.org/australia-pacific/australia/sydney.htm Sydney Sea Temperature] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170705123115/https://www.seatemperature.org/australia-pacific/australia/sydney.htm |date=5 July 2017 }} – seatemperature.org</ref> Sydney has an average of 7.2 hours of sunshine per day<ref>{{cite web |title=Climate statistics for Australian locations Sydney Airport AMO |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_066037_All.shtml |publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=19 October 2020 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923225517/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_066037_All.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> and 109.5 clear days annually.<ref name="metdata">{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/cdio/cvg/av?p_stn_num=066062&p_prim_element_index=0&p_comp_element_index=0&redraw=null&p_display_type=full_statistics_table&normals_years=1991-2020&tablesizebutt=normal |title=Sydney (Observatory Hill) Period 1991–2020 |publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=14 April 2020 |archive-date=9 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200209095647/http://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/cdio/cvg/av?p_stn_num=066062&p_prim_element_index=0&p_comp_element_index=0&redraw=null&p_display_type=full_statistics_table&normals_years=1991-2020&tablesizebutt=normal |url-status=dead }}</ref> Due to the inland location, [[frost]] is recorded early in the morning in [[Western Sydney]] a few times in winter. Autumn and spring are the transitional seasons, with spring showing a larger temperature variation than autumn.<ref>MacDonnell, Freda. Thomas Nelson (Australia) Limited, 1967. ''Before King's Cross''</ref>

Sydney experiences an [[urban heat island]] effect.<ref name="UrbanHeatIsland">{{cite web |url=http://www.smh.com.au/environment/sydney-area-an-urban-heat-island-vulnerable-to-extreme-temperatures-20160113-gm4v14.html |title=Sydney area an 'urban heat island' vulnerable to extreme temperatures |work=The Sydney Morning Herald |date=14 January 2016 |access-date=14 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160114173411/http://www.smh.com.au/environment/sydney-area-an-urban-heat-island-vulnerable-to-extreme-temperatures-20160113-gm4v14.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This makes certain parts of the city more vulnerable to extreme heat, including coastal suburbs.<ref name="UrbanHeatIsland" /><ref>{{Cite journal |title=Urban Heat Island and Overheating Characteristics in Sydney, Australia. An Analysis of Multiyear Measurements |journal=Sustainability |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=712 |year=2017 |first1=Mat |last1=Santamouris |first2=Shamila |last2=Haddad |first3=Francesco |last3=Fiorito |first4=Paul |last4=Osmond |first5=Lan |last5=Ding |first6=Deo |last6=Prasad |first7=Xiaoqiang |last7=Zhai |first8=Ruzhu |last8=Wang |doi=10.3390/su9050712 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In late spring and summer, temperatures over {{cvt|35|C|0}} are not uncommon,<ref>{{cite web |title=Special Climate Statement 43 – extreme heat in January 2013 |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs43e.pdf |publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=2 February 2013 |date=1 February 2013 |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923232139/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/statements/scs43e.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> though hot, dry conditions are usually ended by a [[southerly buster]],<ref>Batt, K, 1995: Sea breezes on the NSW coast, Offshore Yachting, Oct/Nov 1995, Jamieson Publishing.</ref> a powerful southerly that brings [[gale]] winds and a rapid fall in temperature.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article18401582 |title="Southerly Buster" Relieves City. |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=17 December 1953 |access-date=27 March 2015 |page=1 |publisher=National Library of Australia |archive-date=21 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221023753/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/18401582 |url-status=live }}</ref> Since Sydney is downwind of the [[Great Dividing Range]], it occasionally experiences dry, westerly [[Australian foehn winds|foehn winds]] typically in winter and early spring (which are the reason for its warm maximum temperatures).<ref>Sharples, J.J. Mills, G.A., McRae, R.H.D., Weber, R.O. (2010) ''Elevated fire danger conditions associated with foehn-like winds in southeastern Australia. Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology''.</ref><ref>Sharples, J.J., McRae, R.H.D., Weber, R.O., Mills, G.A. (2009) ''Foehn-like winds and fire danger anomalies in southeastern Australia''. Proceedings of the 18th IMACS World Congress and MODSIM09. 13–17 July, Cairns.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-09/sydney-temperatures-to-plummet-in-cold-snap/11097536 |title=BOM predicts NSW and ACT temperatures to plummet as cold snap sweeps through |work=ABC News |author=Bellinda Kontominas |date=9 May 2019 |access-date=5 October 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005111322/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-09/sydney-temperatures-to-plummet-in-cold-snap/11097536 |url-status=live }}</ref> Westerly winds are intense when the [[Roaring Forties]] (or the [[Southern Annular Mode]]) shift towards southeastern Australia,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/12/roaring-forties-shift-south-means-more-droughts-for-southern-australia |title=Roaring Forties' shift south means more droughts for southern Australia |work=The Guardian |author=Helen Davidson |date=12 May 2014 |access-date=2 November 2022 |archive-date=31 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221031230652/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/may/12/roaring-forties-shift-south-means-more-droughts-for-southern-australia |url-status=live }}</ref> where they may damage homes and [[Flight cancellation and delay|affect flights]], in addition to [[apparent temperature|making the temperature]] seem [[wind chill|colder than it actually is]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theleader.com.au/story/6319272/update-dozens-of-flights-grounded-as-wild-winds-lash-sydney-and-melbourne/|title=Cold, damaging winds blast Sydney|work=The Leader|date=9 August 2019|access-date=2 November 2022|archive-date=9 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190809215130/https://www.theleader.com.au/story/6319272/update-dozens-of-flights-grounded-as-wild-winds-lash-sydney-and-melbourne/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-09/bom-weather-warnings-nsw-roof-ripped-off-nursing-home-stockton/11399816|title=BOM warns NSW to brace for worse weather as strong winds tear roof off Newcastle nursing home|work=ABC News|date=9 August 2019|access-date=2 November 2022|archive-date=7 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201107231007/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-09/bom-weather-warnings-nsw-roof-ripped-off-nursing-home-stockton/11399816|url-status=live}}</ref>

Rainfall has a moderate to low variability and has historically been fairly uniform throughout the year, although in recent years it has been more summer-dominant and erratic.<ref>[https://www.bioregionalassessments.gov.au/assessments/11-context-statement-sydney-basin-bioregion/1123-climate Context statement for the Sydney Basin bioregion – Climate] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410151105/https://www.bioregionalassessments.gov.au/assessments/11-context-statement-sydney-basin-bioregion/1123-climate |date=10 April 2021 }} by Bioregional Assessments from the [[Australian Government]]. Retrieved 11 April 2021.</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-25/australian-rainfall-zones/7200050?nw=0 |title=Australia's new seasonal rainfall zones |website=ABC News |date=25 February 2016 |access-date=11 April 2021 |archive-date=21 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021090953/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-02-25/australian-rainfall-zones/7200050?nw=0 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Sydney future: high temps, erratic rain |url=https://www.smh.com.au/national/sydney-future-high-temps-erratic-rain-20081028-5a7x.html |publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118051756/https://www.smh.com.au/national/sydney-future-high-temps-erratic-rain-20081028-5a7x.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Commuters in Sydney and eastern NSW brace for erratic weather |url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/commuters-in-sydney-and-eastern-nsw-brace-for-erratic-weather/news-story/5b8e9db5c801b8a93ce86c8ad37fc5f8 |publisher=[[News.com.au]] |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=24 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124034706/https://www.news.com.au/technology/environment/commuters-in-sydney-and-eastern-nsw-brace-for-erratic-weather/news-story/5b8e9db5c801b8a93ce86c8ad37fc5f8 |url-status=live }}</ref> Precipitation is usually higher in summer through to autumn,<ref name=bom2/> and lower in late winter to early spring.<ref name="ABC news"/><ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/joc.1196|title=The latitude of the subtropical ridge over Eastern Australia: TheL index revisited|first=Wasyl|last=Drosdowsky|date=2 August 2005|journal=International Journal of Climatology|volume=25|issue=10|pages=1291–1299|access-date=2 July 2022|doi=10.1002/joc.1196|bibcode=2005IJCli..25.1291D|s2cid=140198125|archive-date=21 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240221023739/https://rmets.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/joc.1196|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="acn"/><ref>Australian [[Bureau of Meteorology]]. 2005. Ellyard, D. 1994. Droughts and Flooding Rains. Angus & Robertson {{ISBN|0-207-18557-3}}</ref> In late autumn and winter, [[Australian east coast low|east coast lows]] may bring large amounts of rainfall, especially in the CBD.<ref name="BOMECL" >{{cite web |title=About East Coast Lows |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/nsw/sevwx/facts/ecl.shtml |publisher=Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=6 April 2013 |archive-date=2 April 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402033212/http://www.bom.gov.au/nsw/sevwx/facts/ecl.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> In the warm season [[black nor'easter]]s are usually the cause of heavy rain events, though other forms of [[low-pressure area]]s, including remnants of [[Post-tropical cyclone|ex-cyclones]], may also bring heavy deluge and afternoon thunderstorms.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article15284763 |title=Black Nor-Easter. |newspaper=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |date=30 October 1911 |access-date=27 March 2015 |page=7 |publisher=National Library of Australia |archive-date=12 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912221536/https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/15284763 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Power, S., Tseitkin, F., Torok, S., Lavery, B., Dahni, R. and McAvaney, B. 1998. ''Australian temperature, Australian rainfall and the Southern Oscillation, 1910–1992: coherent variability and recent changes.'' Aust. Met. Mag., 47, 85–101</ref> 'Snow' was last alleged in 1836, more than likely a fall of [[graupel]], or soft hail; and in July 2008 the [[North Shore (Sydney)|Upper North Shore]] saw a fall of graupel that was mistaken by many for 'snow'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sydney winter not snow, just hail |url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/it-looked-like-snow-it-felt-like-snow/2008/07/27/1217097051268.html |quote=Mr Zmijewski doubted the 1836 snow report, saying weather observers of the era lacked the expertise of today. "We are almost in the sub-tropics in Sydney", he said. |work=Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=15 November 2013 |date=27 July 2008 |archive-date=23 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723051600/http://www.smh.com.au/news/national/it-looked-like-snow-it-felt-like-snow/2008/07/27/1217097051268.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2009, dry conditions brought a severe [[2009 Australian dust storm|dust storm towards the city]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/nsw/archive/2009.sydney.shtml |title=Sydney in 2009 |publisher=Bom.gov.au |date=4 January 2010 |access-date=10 February 2012 |archive-date=20 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150320201433/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/nsw/archive/2009.sydney.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/nsw/archive/2010.sydney.shtml |title=Sydney in 2010 |publisher=Bom.gov.au |date=4 January 2011 |access-date=10 February 2012 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112162124/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/current/annual/nsw/archive/2010.sydney.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Sydney weatherbox|width=auto}}