Editing Sudan (section)

=== Islamic kingdoms of Sennar and Darfur (c. 1500–1821) ===
{{main|Sultanate of Sennar|Tunjur kingdom|Sultanate of Darfur}}
[[File:Sennar mosque (cropped).jpg|thumb|The great mosque of [[Sennar]], built in the 17th century{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=25}}]]
In 1504 the Funj are recorded to have founded the [[Kingdom of Sennar]], in which Abdallah Jamma's realm was incorporated.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=25–26}} By 1523, when Jewish traveller [[David Reubeni]] visited Sudan, the Funj state already extended as far north as Dongola.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=26}} Meanwhile, Islam began to be preached on the Nile by [[Sufism|Sufi]] holy men who settled there in the 15th and 16th centuries{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=150}} and by David Reubeni's visit king [[Amara Dunqas]], previously a Pagan or nominal Christian, was recorded to be Muslim.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=31}} However, the Funj would retain un-Islamic customs like the divine kingship or the consumption of alcohol until the 18th century.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|pp=151–152}} Sudanese [[Folk religion|folk Islam]] preserved many rituals stemming from Christian traditions until the recent past.{{sfn|Werner|2013|pp=177–184}}

Soon the Funj came in conflict with the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]], who had occupied [[Suakin]] {{circa|1526}}{{sfn|Peacock|2012|p=98}} and eventually pushed south along the Nile, reaching the third Nile cataract area in 1583/1584. A subsequent Ottoman attempt to capture Dongola was [[battle of Hannik|repelled]] by the Funj in 1585.{{sfn|Peacock|2012|pp=96–97}} Afterwards, [[Hannik]], located just south of the third cataract, would mark the border between the two states.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=35}} The aftermath of the Ottoman invasion saw the attempted usurpation of [[Ajib the Great|Ajib]], a minor king of northern Nubia.<!--He is said to have conquered eastern Sudan http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:586255/FULLTEXT01.pdf p. 17 Paul 77,81-83--><!--In around 1580 he conquered eastern Sudan and northwestern Eritrea, --> While the Funj eventually killed him in 1611/1612 his successors, the [[Abdallabi tribe|Abdallab]], were granted to govern everything north of the confluence of Blue and White Niles with considerable autonomy.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=36–40}}

<!--Afterwards the Funj state expanded To compensate for this loss and to meet the growing danger posed by the [[Dinka]] and [[Shilluk]] (the latter had founded a [[Shilluk Kingdom|kingdom]] on their own by the early 17th century),
To the south, the Funj gradually expanded southwards the Gezira since the mid 16th century.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=58}} In 1685 they conquered the kingdom of Fazughli,{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=21}} and somewhat later, perhaps {{circa|1720}}, they established themselves in [[Benishangul-Gumuz Region|Bela Shangul]], western [[Ethiopia]].{{sfn|Triulzi|1981|p=74}} Nuba mountains mid 17th century Adams 602 Northern and central Kordofan 1736 p=63 Nuba mountains Adams 602

The 18th century saw the development of the [[Baqqara]] Djuhaina Araber 114
Juhayne east and west of Nile Adams
the premise for precolonial Nuba history
Shaiqiya warrior aristocracy{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=604}} Disdain for Nubian subjects{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=606}}
The Shaiqiya quickly became a dominant military force and raided the Nile Valley from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, but proved incapable of creating a large empire, instead fracturing into four petty, infighting kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}}
Shilluk kingdom Blood memory p 34 Mercer late 17th century p=416
HOLT: https://books.google.de/books?id=BkO14rpfY70C&pg=PA22&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=3#v=onepage&q&f=false

Decline The state disintegrated as in the late 17th century the warlike [[Shaigiya]], who lived around the fourth Nile cataract, declared independence from the Abdallab and established four independent petty kingdoms.{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=606–607}} In the late 18th century the Abdallab,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=608}}, Kordofan and eastern Sudan{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=383}} followed. In this period the Shaiqiya were the dominant military force of the Middle Nile, who, while proving to be uncapable of creating a functional empire, regularly raided the territory from Dongola to the confluence of the Blue and White Niles.{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=607}} Spaulding 1998 p=54 In the south the Funj state came under the pressure of the [[Shilluk kingdom|Shilluk]] SOURCE and [[Dinka]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=61–63}}

The decline was hastened by the economy-->
During the 17th century the Funj state reached its widest extent,{{sfn|Adams|1977|p=601}} but in the following century it began to decline.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=78}} A coup in 1718 brought a dynastic change,{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=88}} while another one in 1761–1762{{sfn|Spaulding|1974|p=24–25}} resulted in the [[Hamaj Regency]], where the [[Hamaj]] (a people from the Ethiopian borderlands) effectively ruled while the Funj sultans were their mere puppets.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=94–95}} Shortly afterwards the sultanate began to fragment;{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=98}} by the early 19th century it was essentially restricted to the Gezira.{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|p=382}}
[[File:Southern Sudan - 1800.png|thumb|Southern Sudan in {{circa}} 1800. Modern boundaries are shown.]]
The coup of 1718 kicked off a policy of pursuing a more orthodox Islam, which in turn promoted the [[Arabisation]] of the state.{{sfn|Loimeier|2013|p=152}} To legitimise their rule over their Arab subjects the Funj began to propagate an [[Banu Umayya|Umayyad descend]].{{sfn|Spaulding|1985|pp=210–212}} North of the confluence of the Blue and White Niles, as far downstream as [[Al Dabbah, Sudan|Al Dabbah]], the Nubians adopted the tribal identity of the Arab [[Ja'alin tribe|Jaalin]].{{sfn|Adams|1977|pp=557–558}} Until the 19th century Arabic had succeeded in becoming the dominant language of central riverine Sudan{{sfn|Edwards|2004|p=260}}{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|pp=28–29}}{{sfn|Hesse|2002|p=50}} and most of Kordofan.{{sfn|Hesse|2002|pp=21–22}}

<!--
Meanwhile, the sultanate of Darfur was at its peak,{{sfn|Holt|2000|p=35}}-->
West of the Nile, in [[Darfur]], the Islamic period saw at first the rise of the [[Tunjur kingdom]], which replaced the old [[Daju kingdom]] in the 15th century{{sfn|McGregor|2011|loc=Table 1}} and extended as far west as [[Wadai Empire|Wadai]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The [[Tunjur people]] were probably Arabised [[Berbers]] and, their ruling elite at least, Muslims.{{sfn|McGregor|2011|p=132}} In the 17th century the Tunjur were driven from power by the [[Fur people|Fur]] [[Sultanate of Darfur|Keira sultanate]].{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=110}} The Keira state, nominally Muslim since the reign of [[Sulayman Solong]] (r. {{circa}} 1660–1680),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=123}} was initially a small kingdom in northern [[Jebel Marra]],{{sfn|Holt|Daly|2000|p=31}} but expanded west- and northwards in the early 18th century{{sfn|O'Fahey|Spaulding|1974|p=126}} and eastwards under the rule of [[Muhammad Tayrab of Darfur|Muhammad Tayrab]] (r. 1751–1786),{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}} peaking in the conquest of Kordofan in 1785.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} The apogee of this empire, now roughly the size of present-day [[Nigeria]],{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=2}} would last until 1821.{{sfn|O'Fahey|Tubiana|2007|p=9}}