Editing Stephen, King of England (section)

=== Defending the kingdom (1138–1139) ===
[[File:Goodrich Castle keep1.jpg|thumb|The stone [[keep]] at [[Goodrich Castle|Goodrich]] in Herefordshire, an example of the style of fortification slowly beginning to replace wooden [[motte and bailey]] castle design by the late 1130s]]

Stephen was attacked on several fronts during 1138. First, [[Robert, Earl of Gloucester]], rebelled against the King, starting the descent into civil war in England.<ref name=CarpenterP169/> An illegitimate son of Henry I and the half-brother of the Empress Matilda, Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo-Norman barons, controlling estates in Normandy. He was known for his qualities as a statesman, his military experience, and leadership ability.<ref name="BarlowP169">Barlow, p. 169.</ref> Robert had tried to convince Theobald to take the throne in 1135; he did not attend Stephen's first court in 1136 and it took several summonses to convince him to attend court at [[Oxford]] later that year.<ref>King (2010), pp. 61–62.</ref> In 1138, Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda, triggering a major regional rebellion in [[Kent]] and across the south-west of England, although Robert himself remained in Normandy.<ref>Stringer, p. 18.</ref> In France, Geoffrey of Anjou took advantage of the situation by re-invading Normandy. David I of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again, announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne, pushing south into [[Yorkshire]].<ref name="CarpenterP166"/>{{#tag:ref|King David was a maternal uncle to both the Empress Matilda and Matilda of Boulogne, Stephen's wife.|group="nb"}}

Anglo-Norman warfare during the reign of Stephen was characterised by [[Attrition warfare|attritional]] military campaigns, in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries' territory and ultimately win a slow, strategic victory.<ref name="BradburyP71">Bradbury, p. 71.</ref> The armies of the period centred on bodies of mounted, armoured [[knight]]s, supported by [[infantry]] and [[crossbow]]men.<ref>Bradbury, p. 74.</ref> These forces were either [[feudal]] levies, drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign, or, increasingly, mercenaries, who were expensive but more flexible and often more skilled. These armies, however, were ill-suited to besieging castles, whether the older [[motte-and-bailey]] designs or the newer, stone-built [[keep]]s. Existing siege engines were significantly less powerful than the later [[trebuchet]] designs, giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers. As a result, slow sieges to starve defenders out, or [[Tunnel warfare|mining operations]] to undermine walls, tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults.<ref name=BradburyP71/> Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were considered highly risky endeavours and were usually avoided by prudent commanders.<ref name=BradburyP71/> The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the 12th century, and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in the success of campaigns.<ref>Stringer, pp. 24–25.</ref>

[[File:Prince Henry of Scotland 1139 692124.jpg|thumb|left|A silver [[penny]] of Prince [[Henry of Scotland]], minted in his own name at [[Corbridge]] in Northumberland after his peace deal with Stephen]]

Stephen's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat, his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly over relatively long distances.<ref>Stringer, pp. 15–16; Davis, p. 127.</ref> In response to the revolts and invasions, he rapidly undertook several military campaigns, focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy. His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne, with the task of retaking the key port of [[Dover]], under Robert's control.<ref name=BarlowP169/> A small number of Stephen's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots, where David's forces were defeated later that year at the [[battle of the Standard]] in August by the forces of [[Thurstan]], the [[Archbishop of York]].<ref name="CarpenterP166">Carpenter, p. 166.</ref> Despite this victory, however, David still occupied most of the north.<ref name=CarpenterP166/> Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of [[Gloucestershire]], first striking north into the [[Welsh Marches]], taking [[Hereford]] and [[Shrewsbury]], before heading south to [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]].<ref name=BarlowP169/> The town of [[Bristol]] itself proved too strong for him, and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area.<ref name=BarlowP169/> The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support that year, but he remained in Normandy throughout, trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself.<ref>Bradbury, p. 67.</ref> Dover finally surrendered to the Queen's forces later in the year.<ref name="Crouch2002P256">Crouch (2002), p. 256.</ref>

Stephen's military campaign in England had progressed well, and historian David Crouch describes it as "a military achievement of the first rank".<ref name=Crouch2002P256/> The King took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland.<ref name=Crouch2002P256/> Stephen's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David, called the [[Treaty of Durham (1139)|treaty of Durham]]; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son Henry, in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border.<ref name=CarpenterP166/> The powerful [[Ranulf II, Earl of Chester]], considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots.<ref name=DavisP50/> Nonetheless, Stephen could now focus his attention on the anticipated invasion of England by Robert and Matilda's forces.<ref>Carpenter, p. 170.</ref>