Editing Stanley Bruce (section)

===Imperial overtures===
[[File:Imperial Conference 1923 Cartoon.png|thumb|upright=1.6|right|Much coverage was given to the stand taken by Bruce at the 1923 Imperial Conference.]]
Loyal to the concept of the [[British Empire]], Bruce envisaged strengthening it through mutual economic development, greater political co-operation, and common policies on defence, trade and foreign affairs. His first trip abroad as prime minister was for the 1923 Imperial Conference in London. Bruce put forward a wide range of proposals for stronger co-operation between Great Britain and her [[dominion]]s in a wide range of areas, particularly in the areas of trade, defence and the formulation of a common foreign policy. He particularly desired a greater role for the dominions in imperial affairs, including a collective decision-making body for common questions of defence and foreign affairs. He took exception to a lack of involvement in foreign policy decisions made by Britain that would have significant ramifications for Australia. In 1922, in what became known as the [[Chanak Crisis]], British brinkmanship over Turkey's aggressive manoeuvres to [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)|redefine its border with Greece]] had escalated to the point where the British cabinet had threatened war against Turkey. This threat included military participation of dominions in an intervention, though no dominion government had been informed of the developments in Turkey.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meany|first=Neville|title=Australia and World Crisis: 1914–1923, Vol. 2|year=2009|publisher=Sydney University Press|location=Sydney|isbn=978-1-920899-17-2|pages=508–512}}</ref> Although a diplomatic end to the crisis was eventually found, dominion leaders were angered at having almost been committed to a military conflict without any consultation.<ref>{{cite book|last=Meany|first=Neville|title=Australia and World Crisis: 1914–1923, Vol. 2|year=2009|publisher=Sydney University Press|location=Sydney|isbn=978-1-920899-17-2|pages=510–512}}</ref>

Bruce pushed for greater consultation and voice for the dominions, and succeeded in having [[Richard Casey, Baron Casey|Richard Casey]] appointed as a permanent political liaison in London who would have access to British government decisions and act as a conduit between Westminster and Melbourne.{{sfn|Andrews|pp=48–51}} He also successfully lobbied for the creation of a [[Dominion Office]] separated out from the [[Colonial Office]] to acknowledge the different state of affairs that now existed in the Empire. However, while fellow dominions generally agreed that the imperial system should be modified, not all shared his vision for closer collaboration and strong ties. Canada and the [[Union of South Africa]] were instead seeking greater independence from London, and there was little enthusiasm for many of Bruce's more ambitious plans for inter-empire trade and policy co-operation.{{sfn|Andrews|pp=50–51}}

Despite Australia's greater representation in London after 1923, Bruce's hope for collective imperial decision-making was dashed once more with the British decision to recognise the Soviet Union in 1924. This act dismayed the fervently anti-communist Bruce, who disagreed with the decision ideologically and on the grounds that once again the dominions had not been consulted.<ref>{{cite news |title=Treaties with Russia: Australia's Position |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article4170559 |newspaper=The Argus |date=20 August 1924|page=19}}</ref> Ultimately, though, the differences between Britain's and her dominions' opinions on the matter were too great to be reconciled. Instead, Britain signed the ''General Treaty'' with the Soviet Union only on her own behalf, marking the first major split between Britain and Australia on a matter of foreign policy.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McNair |first1=John |last2=Poole |first2=Thomas |year=1992 |title=Russia and the Fifth Continent: Aspects of Russian-Australian Relation |publisher=University of Queensland Press |location=St Lucia, QLD |isbn=0-7022-2420-0|pages=176–177}}:</ref> Despite its applicability solely to European security arrangements, Bruce had criticised Britain's signing of the [[Locarno Treaties]] in 1925 without dominion consultation;<ref name="trove">{{cite news |title=The Empire "At the Crossroads" |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article54853909 |newspaper=The Register |date=4 August 1926|page=8}}</ref> though the eventual treaty was not binding on the dominions.<ref>{{cite news|title=The Locarno Pact: Its Significance to Australia|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1300&dat=19260325&id=v9dVAAAAIBAJ&pg=7192,8548052|access-date=21 August 2013|newspaper=The Age|date=25 March 1926|page=15}}</ref>

[[File:ImperialConference.jpg|left|thumb|Bruce (Back row centre) at the [[1926 Imperial Conference]]]]The [[1926 Imperial Conference]] confirmed that Britain and her dominions were rapidly diverging in interests and that greater independence{{spaced ndash}} not greater co-operation{{spaced ndash}} was the most practical solution. Bruce recognised the empire had reached a turning point, but despite his optimism for a reinvigorated imperial system, there was little interest from other governments.<ref name="trove"/> His plan for greater economic and defensive co-operation was discussed, as well as a revival of imperial preference in trading arrangements, but such ideas were now politically unpalatable in Britain and failed to develop.{{sfn|Cumpston|pp=70–73}} His attitudes were almost the opposite of those held by the leaders of Canada, South Africa and the [[Irish Free State]]. As Prime Minister Baldwin remarked at the conference, "If you, Mr Bruce, would use the word 'Empire' a bit less and you [[Patrick McGilligan (Fine Gael politician)|Mr McGilligan]] would use it a bit more, then we would make better progress."<ref>{{cite book|last=Harkness|first=D.W.|title=The Restless Dominion : The Irish Free State and the British Commonwealth of Nations|url=https://archive.org/details/restlessdominion0000hark|url-access=registration|year=1969|publisher=Macmillan|location=London, UK|isbn=0-333-06319-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/restlessdominion0000hark/page/94 94]}}</ref> Ultimately proposals for greater independence won out, and 1926 Imperial Conference recognised through the [[Balfour Declaration of 1926|Balfour Declaration]] that dominions were essentially independent entities that freely associated as the [[British Commonwealth of Nations]], though after much negotiation it stopped short of using the terms ''nation'' or ''state''. [[Governor-General|Governors-General]] were redefined as representatives only of the [[British monarch]], not the [[British government]], and were obliged now to act only on the advice of their respective dominion governments. These changes were both symbolically and practically significant in the transformation of the dominions from colonies to independent nations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Inter-Imperial Relations |url=http://atojs.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/atojs?a=d&d=AJHR1927-I.2.1.2.9&e=-------10--1------0 |newspaper=Proceedings of the 1926 Imperial Conference |year=1927 |pages=8–18}}</ref> Bruce had mixed feelings about these developments; on the one hand he believed that the Empire was still a strong and vital international organisation playing a positive role in international affairs, but on the other hand he was disappointed that other member nations did not share his vision or commitment to maintaining its integrity and unity.{{sfn|Cumpston|p=74}} Bruce did have some successes at the conference, however, expanding the work of the Imperial Economic Committee and increasing inter-empire co-operation in technical and scientific areas.{{sfn|Cumpston|p=72}}