Editing Soul (section)

===Islam===
{{Main|Nafs|Rūḥ}}
[[Islam]] uses two words for the soul: ''rūḥ'' (translated as 'spirit', 'consciousness', 'pneuma', or 'soul') and ''nafs'' (translated as 'self', 'ego', 'psyche', or 'soul').<ref name="Talib">{{cite journal |last1 = Deuraseh |first1 = Nurdeen |last2 = Abu Talib |first2 = Mansor |year = 2005 |title = Mental health in Islamic medical tradition |journal = The International Medical Journal |volume = 4 |issue = 2 |pages = 76–79}}</ref><ref name="brag">{{cite journal |last1 = Bragazzi |first1 = NL |last2 = Khabbache |first2 = H |display-authors = etal |year = 2018 |title = Neurotheology of Islam and Higher Consciousness States |url = http://cosmosandhistory.org/index.php/journal/article/viewFile/742/1296 |journal = Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy |volume = 14 |issue = 2 |pages = 315–21 |archive-date = 15 June 2021 |access-date = 27 June 2020 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210615090208/https://cosmosandhistory.org/index.php/journal/article/viewFile/742/1296 |url-status = live }}</ref> The two terms are frequently used interchangeably, although ''rūḥ'' is more often used to denote the divine spirit or "the breath of life", while ''nafs'' designates one's disposition or characteristics.<ref>{{cite book |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the Qurʾān]] |volume=5 |editor=Jane Dammen McAuliffe |year=2006 |publisher=Brill |chapter=Soul |author=[[Th. Emil Homerin]]}}</ref> The [[Taj al-'Arus min Jawahir al-Qamus]] lists several meanings of ''nafs'', including two from the [[Lisān al-ʿArab]], including spirit, self, desire, evil eye, disdain, body.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> [[Lane's Lexicon]] notes that humans consist of ''nafs'' and ''rūḥ''. The former applies to the mind and the latter to life.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> Attribution of ''nafs'' to [[God in Islam|God]] ([[Allah]]) is avoided.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> [[Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi|Al-Bag̲h̲dādī]] also rejected that God has ''rūḥ'' in order to have life, as Christian beliefs, and proposes that all spirits (''arwāḥ'') are created.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref>

In the [[Quran]], ''nafs'' (plurals: ''anfus'' and ''nufūs'') refers in most cases to the person or a self.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> It is used for both humans and [[djinn]] (but not to [[Angels in Islam|angels]]).<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> When referring to the soul it is of three types: the commanding self (''ammāra bi ’l sūʾ''), remniscient of the Hebrew ''nefes̲h̲'' (physical appetite) and the [[Apostle Paul|Pauline]] idea of "flesh" (φυχή) and is always evil, its greed must be feared, and it must be restraint.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> The accusing self (''lawwāma'') is the soul of the deserters. Lastly, there is the tranquil soul (''muṭmaʾinna''). This typology of the soul is the foundation for later Muslim treatises on ethics and psychology.<ref>Calverley, E.E., & Netton, (. (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref>

====Islamic philosophy (<span lang="ar-Latn">''falsafa''</span>)====
[[File:Miraj by Sultan Muhammad.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|1543 illustration of Muhammad's Night Journey. His ascension to the heavens is often interpreted as an [[Allegory|allegory]] for the human soul ascending to the celestial realms in Islamic philosophy.]]
Most [[Muslim philosophers]] (Arabic: {{tlit|ar|falsafa}}), aligned with their Greek predecessors, broadly accepted that the soul is composed of non-rational and rational elements.<ref name=":14">Inati, S.(1998). Soul in Islamic philosophy. In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis.</ref> The non-rational dimension was subdivided into the vegetative and animal souls, while the rational aspect was split into the practical and theoretical intellects.<ref>Adamson, P., & Taylor, R. C. (Eds.). (2004). The Cambridge companion to Arabic philosophy. Cambridge university press. p. 309.</ref><ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> While all agreed that the non-rational soul is tied to the body, opinions diverged on the rational part: some deemed it immaterial and naturally independent of the body, whereas others asserted the entirely material nature of all soul components.<ref name=":14">Inati, S.(1998). Soul in Islamic philosophy. In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor and Francis.</ref> [[Ibn Hazm]] uses {{tlit|ar|nafs}} and {{tlit|ar|rūḥ}} interchangeably.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> He also rejected [[metempsychosis]] that all souls were already created then the angels were commanded to bow before [[Adam in Islam|Adam]], waiting in [[Barzakh]] until the blown into the embryo.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref>

Consensus held that during its union with the body, the non-rational soul governs bodily functions, the practical intellect manages earthly and corporeal matters, and the theoretical intellect pursues knowledge of universal, eternal truths.<ref name=":14" /> These thinkers maintained that the soul’s highest purpose or happiness lies in transcending bodily desires to contemplate timeless universal principles.<ref name=":14" /> All agreed the non-rational soul is mortal—created and inevitably perishable. However, views on the rational soul’s fate varied: [[al-Farabi]] suggested its eternal survival was uncertain; [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] claimed it was uncreated and immortal; and [[Averroes|Ibn Rushd]] argued that the entire soul, including all its parts, is transient and ultimately ceases to exist.<ref name=":14" />

For [[Ibn Arabi]], the soul is human potential, and the purpose of life is the actualization of that potential.<ref>Chittick, William, "Ibn ‘Arabî", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), chapter 6 URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ibn-arabi/>.</ref> Human experience is whereby always between the body ({{tlit|ar|jism}}) and spirit ({{tlit|ar|rūḥ}}),<ref>Chittick, William, "Ibn ‘Arabî", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), chapter 6 URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ibn-arabi/>. chapter 3.3</ref> and thus the indivual experience is limited to imagination ({{tlit|ar|nafsânî}}).<ref>Chittick, William, "Ibn ‘Arabî", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), chapter 6 URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ibn-arabi/>. chapter 3.3</ref> Wavering between its body and spirit, the soul can choose (free-will) between either ascending to realization or descending to the materialistic mind,<ref>Chittick, William, "Ibn ‘Arabî", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), chapter 6 URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ibn-arabi/>. chapter 3.3</ref> which Ibn Arabi compares to [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad's]] [[Isra' and Mi'raj|Night Journey]] ({{tlit|ar|miʿrāj}}).<ref>Chittick, William, "Ibn ‘Arabî", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), chapter 6 URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ibn-arabi/>. chapter 6.0</ref> This allows the soul to determine its own tragectory in a [[Karma|karmic]] chain of causalities, towards paradisical or infernal levels, depending on the person's understanding, traits, and actions.<ref>Chittick, William, "Ibn ‘Arabî", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2020 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), chapter 6 URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2020/entries/ibn-arabi/>. chapter 5</ref>

====Theology (<span lang="ar-Latn">''kalam''</span>)====
[[File:4DModel.jpg|thumb|A visual rendition of the Islamic model of the soul showing the position of {{tlit|ar|nafs}} relative to other concepts]]
[[Al-Ghazali]] ({{floruit|11th century}}) reconciles the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] views on the soul with Avicennan philosophy ({{tlit|ar|falsafa}}).<ref>Tamer, Georges. Islam and Rationality: The Impact of al-Ghazālī. Papers Collected on His 900th Anniversary. Vol. 1. Vol. 94. Brill, 2015. p. 101.</ref> Al-Ghazali defines human as a spiritual substance ({{tlit|ar|d̲j̲awhar rūḥānī}}), neither confined, nor joined, nor separated from the body.<ref>Abul Quasem, M. (1975). The ethics of al-Ghazali: A composite ethics in Islam. p. 44.</ref><ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> It possesses knowledge and perception.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> He identifies the immaterial self with the {{tlit|ar|al-nafs al-muṭmaʾinna}} and {{tlit|ar|al-rūḥ al-amīn}} of the Quran and {{tlit|ar|nafs}} for bodily desires which must be disciplined.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref><ref>Rassool, G. H., & Luqman, M. M. (2022). Foundations of Islāmic psychology: From classical scholars to contemporary thinkers. Routledge. p. 81.</ref> He, however, refuses to elaborate on the deepest nature of the soul, as he claims it is forbidden by ''[[sharia|sharīʿah]]'', on grounds that it is beyond comprehension.<ref>Abul Quasem, M. (1975). The ethics of al-Ghazali: A composite ethics in Islam. p. 44.</ref>

According to al-Ghazali, {{tlit|ar|nafs}} consists of three elements: animals, devils, and angels.<ref>Rassool, G. H., & Luqman, M. M. (2022). Foundations of Islāmic psychology: From classical scholars to contemporary thinkers. Routledge. p. 80.</ref> The term for the self or soul is [[Qalb|heart]] ({{tlit|ar|ḳalb}}).<ref>Rassool, G. H., & Luqman, M. M. (2022). Foundations of Islāmic psychology: From classical scholars to contemporary thinkers. Routledge. p. 80.</ref><ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> The {{tlit|ar|nafs}}, in al-Ghazali's concept of the soul, is best be understood as [[Psyche (psychology)|psyche]], a 'vehicle' ({{tlit|ar|markab}}) of the soul, but yet distinct.<ref>Abul Quasem, M. (1975). The ethics of al-Ghazali: A composite ethics in Islam. p. 44.</ref><ref>Rassool, G. H., & Luqman, M. M. (2022). Foundations of Islāmic psychology: From classical scholars to contemporary thinkers. Routledge. p. 81.</ref> The animalistic parts of {{tlit|ar|nafs}} is concerned with bodily functions, such as eating and sleeping, the devilish part with deceit and lies, and the angelic part with comtemplating the signs of God and preventing lust and anger.<ref>Rassool, G. H., & Luqman, M. M. (2022). Foundations of Islāmic psychology: From classical scholars to contemporary thinkers. Routledge. p. 80.</ref> Accordingly, the inclinations towards following either {{tlit|ar|nafs}} or the intellect is associated with supernatural agents: the angels inspire to follow the intellect ({{tlit|ar|ilhām}}) and the devils tempt to give in into evil ({{tlit|ar|waswās}}).<ref>amer, Georges. Islam and Rationality: The Impact of al-Ghazālī. Papers Collected on His 900th Anniversary. Vol. 1. Vol. 94. Brill, 2015. p. 104.</ref><ref>Zaroug, Abdullahi Hassan (1997). "Al-Ghazali's Sufism: A Critical Appraisal". Intellectual Discourse. 5 (2): 150.</ref>

[[Qadi Baydawi|Al-Baydawi]]'s psychology shows influence from the writings of al-Ghazali, whom he also mentions explicitly.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> His classification of souls is elaborated in his ''{{tlit|ar|Ṭawāliʿ al-anwār}}'', authored {{circa|1300}}.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> Like, al-Ghazali, he is in support of the existence of the soul as independent from the body and offers both rational as well as Quranic evidence.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> He further adds that {{tlit|ar|nafs}} is created when the body is completed, but is not embodied itself, and is connected with {{tlit|ar|rūḥ}}.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref>

When discussing the souls, al-Baydawi establishes a cosmological hierarchy of heavenly Intellects.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> Accordingly, God, in his [[Tawhid|unity]] ({{tlit|ar|tawḥīd}}), first creates the Intellect ({{tlit|ar|ʿaḳl}}), which  is neither body, nor form, but the cause of all other potentialities. From this Intellect, a third Intellect is produced up to the tenth Intellect, which in turn influences the elements and bring fourth the spirits ({{tlit|ar|arwāḥ}}). Below these Intellects are the "souls of the spheres" ({{tlit|ar|al-nufūs al-falakiyya}}) identified with the heavenly angels.<ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref> Below them are the incorporeal earthly angels, both [[Cherubim#In Islam|good]] and [[Shayatin|evil angels]] ({{tlit|ar|al-kurūbiyyūn}} and {{tlit|ar|al-s̲h̲ayāṭīn}}), angels in control of the elements and the "souls of reasoning" ({{tlit|ar|anfus nāṭiḳa}}), as well as djinn.<ref>Calverley, E. E. & Pollock, J. (Eds.). (2022) Nature, Man and God in Medieval Islam: Volume One. Brill. pp. 645–647.</ref><ref>Calverley, E. E., & Netton, (2012). Nafs. In P. Bearman (ed.), Encyclopaedia of Islam New Edition Online (EI-2 English). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0833</ref>

====Ismailism====
[[File:Muhammad ibn Muhammad Shakir Ruzmah-'i Nathani - A Soul Symbolized as an Angel - Walters W65944A - Full Page.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Muhammad ibn Muhammad Shakir Ruzmah-'i Nathani{{snd}}''A Soul Symbolized as an Angel'' (1717)]]
[[Ismailism|Ismaili cosmology]] is largely described through [[Neo-Platonic]] and [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] ideas.<ref>Walker, P. E. (1993). Early philosophical Shiism: the Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abū Yaʻqūb al-Sijistānī. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 95.</ref><ref>Daftary, F. (2020). Short History of the Ismailis: Traditions of a Muslim Community. Edinburgh University Press. p. 86.</ref> Two influential Ismaili teachers are [[Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani]] during the 10th century and [[Nasir Khusraw]] during the 11th.<ref>Walker, P. E. (1993). Early philosophical Shiism: the Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abū Yaʻqūb al-Sijistānī. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 95.</ref> One of the Sijistani's key doctrines is the immateriality of the soul, which belongs to the spiritual domain but is captured in the body of the material world.<ref>Walker, P. E. (1993). Early philosophical Shiism: the Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abū Yaʻqūb al-Sijistānī. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press. p. 95.</ref><ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 212.</ref> In his [[soteriology|soteriological teachings]], the soul needs to discard sensual pleasures for the sake of intellectual gratification through spiritual ascension.<ref>Walker, P. E. (1993). Early philosophical Shiism: the Ismaili Neoplatonism of Abū Yaʻqūb al-Sijistānī. Vereinigtes Königreich: Cambridge University Press.</ref><ref>Daftary, F. (2020). Short History of the Ismailis: Traditions of a Muslim Community. Edinburgh University Press. p. 86.</ref><ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 211.</ref> One of Sijistani's arguments is, that sensual pleasure is finite, and thus cannot be part of the eternal soul.<ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 211.</ref> Although not made explicit by Sijistani himself, other Ismaili authors propose that a soul attached to material pleasure will be reborn in another sensual body on earth, first as a dark-skinned person, a Berber, or a Turk, then as an animals, an insects, or a plant, all believed to be progressively less likely to pursue spiritual or intellectual virtues.<ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 212.</ref> 

In this context, [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] identifies the earthly world with {{tlit|ar|[[Sijjin|sijjīn]]}}.<ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 214.</ref> The {{tlit|ar|[[zabaniyah]]}} are identified with the nineteen evil forces that distract human being from heavenly truths and diverge them to material and sensual concerns, including distorted imagination ({{tlit|ar|khayāl}}).<ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 214.</ref> The paradisical [[houri]]s are conceptualized as items of knowledge from the spiritual world, the soul is united with in a form of metaphorical marriage, per Surah 44:54.<ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 214.</ref> This type of knowledge is inaccessible to those souls remaining in the earthly domain or hell.<ref>Lange, C. (2015). Paradise and hell in Islamic traditions. Cambridge University Press. p. 214.</ref>

Nasir Khusraw equates the rational soul of humans with a spirit potentially angel and demon.<ref>Nasr, S. H., and Aminrazavi, Mehdi. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, Vol. 2: Ismaili Thought in the Classical Age. Iran, I. B. Tauris, 2008. pp. 319–323.</ref><ref>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Philosophy. (2017). Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press. p. 186.</ref> The soul is a potential angel or potential demon, depending on their obedience to God's law.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Philosophy. (2017). Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press. p. 186.</ref> The obedient soul is growing to a potential angel and becomes an actual angel upon death, while the soul seeking out sensual delights is a potential demon and turns into an actual demon in the next world.<ref>The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Philosophy. (2017). Vereinigtes Königreich: Oxford University Press. p. 186.</ref><ref>Nasr, S. H., and Aminrazavi, Mehdi. An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia, Vol. 2: Ismaili Thought in the Classical Age. Iran, I. B. Tauris, 2008.</ref>