Editing Slave rebellion (section)

==South America and the Caribbean==
[[Slave Rebellion of December 25, 1522|December 25, 1521]] rebellion in [[Diego Colón de Toledo, 4th Admiral of the Indies|Diego Colón de Toledo]]'s plantation in what is known today as [[Dominican Republic]] is the first known slave rebellion of the region.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Deive|first=Carlos Esteban|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/21435953|title=Los guerrilleros negros: esclavos fugitivos y cimarrones en Santo Domingo|date=1989|publisher=Fundación Cultural Dominicana|location=Santo Domingo, República Dominicana|language=es|oclc=21435953|access-date=2020-07-20|archive-date=2020-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200721115346/https://www.worldcat.org/title/guerrilleros-negros-esclavos-fugitivos-y-cimarrones-en-santo-domingo/oclc/21435953|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite the suppression of this revolt, many of the slaves successfully escaped, which led to the establishment of the first [[Maroons|Maroon]] communities of the Americas. It would also open the doors for more slave revolts to transpire in the region. In 1532, [[Sebastián Lemba]], of the [[Lemba people|Lemba]] tribe, rebelled against the Spanish colonists and for the next 15 years, attacked various other villages on the island liberating other slaves and ransacking from the Spaniards. Other leaders such as Juan Vaquero, Diego del Guzmán, Fernando Montoro, Juan Criollo, and [[Diego del Ocampo]] followed in Lemba's footsteps. [[Dominican Republic|Dominican]] slave revolts continued throughout the 18th and 19th century such as the slave insurrections of Hincha and Samaná in the spring of 1795, the [[1796 Boca de Nigua slave revolt|Boca de Nigua revolt in 1796]], the Gambia revolt of 1802, and the revolt led by José Leocadio, Pedro de Seda, and Pedro Henríquez in 1812.<ref>{{Cite book |first=Milagros |last=Ricourt |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1020852484 |title=The Dominican Racial Imaginary Surveying the Landscape of Race and Nation in Hispaniola |date=2016 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |isbn=978-0-8135-8450-8 |oclc=1020852484}}</ref>

In 1552 [[Miguel de Buría ]]<ref name=" Rodríguez224">{{Harvnb|Rodríguez |2006|p=224}}</ref> a former slave in [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]],<ref name="Simón83">{{Harvnb|Simón|1627|p=83}}</ref> reigned as the King of Buría Golden mines in the modern-day state of [[Lara (state)|Lara]], [[Venezuela]], after leading the first African rebellion in the country's history.<ref name="Duque325">{{Harvnb|Duque|2013|p=325}}</ref>  His incumbency began in 1552 and lasted until 1554 after a failed attempt to take Barquisimeto city was killed by Spanish forces.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

Between 1538 and 1542, a [[Guaraní people|Guaraní]] slave from present-day [[Paraguay]] named [[India Juliana|Juliana]] killed her Spanish master and urged other indigenous women to do the same, ending up executed by order of [[Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ultimahora.com/en-busca-la-india-juliana-n2917140.html|title=En busca de la India Juliana|accessdate=December 12, 2021|language=es|first=Andrés|last=Colmán Gutiérrez|location=Asunción|date=December 5, 2020|work=[[Última Hora (Paraguay)|Última Hora]]|archive-date=April 23, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423112023/https://www.ultimahora.com/en-busca-la-india-juliana-n2917140.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ea.com.py/blogs/relatos-sobre-la-india-juliana-entre-la-construccion-de-la-memoria-y-la-ficcion-historica/|language=es|accessdate=December 12, 2021|title=Relatos sobre la India Juliana. Entre la construcción de la memoria y la ficción histórica|first=Gabriela|last=Schvartzman|date=September 19, 2020|work=Periódico E'a|location=Asunción|publisher=Atycom|archive-date=April 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408032622/http://ea.com.py/blogs/relatos-sobre-la-india-juliana-entre-la-construccion-de-la-memoria-y-la-ficcion-historica/|url-status=live}}</ref> Her rebellion is regarded as one of the earliest recorded indigenous uprisings against the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ultimahora.com/las-kuna-cerveza-como-simbolo-cultural-n2871068.html|language=es|accessdate=January 16, 2022|title=Las Kuña: cerveza como símbolo cultural|first=Romina|last=Aquino González|date=February 20, 2020|work=[[Última Hora (Paraguay)|Última Hora]]|archive-date=January 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118182333/https://www.ultimahora.com/las-kuna-cerveza-como-simbolo-cultural-n2871068.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ea.com.py/personajes-historicos-del-paraguay-india-juliana/|language=es|accessdate=January 19, 2022|title=Personajes históricos del Paraguay: India Juliana|first=Diana|last=Viveros|date=April 28, 2011|work=Periódico E'a|location=Asunción|publisher=Atycom|archive-date=January 19, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119234719/http://ea.com.py/personajes-historicos-del-paraguay-india-juliana/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Quilombo dos Palmares]] in [[Brazil]], 1605 to 1694, led by [[Zumbi|Zumbi dos Palmarés]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

[[San Basilio de Palenque]] in [[Colombia]], 16th century to the present, led by [[Benkos Biohó]].{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

[[Saint John, U.S. Virgin Islands|St. John]], 1733, in what was then the [[Danish West Indies]]. [[1733 slave insurrection on St. John|The St. John's Slave Rebellion]] is one of the earliest and longest lasting slave rebellions in the Americas. It ended with defeat, however, and many rebels, including one of the leaders [[Breffu]], committed suicide rather than being recaptured.<ref name=norton>{{cite thesis|title=Estate by Estate: The Landscape of the 1733 St. Jan Slave Rebellion|author=Holly Kathryn Norton|date=2013|type=PhD|publisher=Syracuse University|page=90|id={{ProQuest|1369397993}}}}</ref>

The most successful slave uprising was the [[Haitian Revolution]], which began in 1791 and was eventually led by [[Toussaint L'Ouverture]], culminating in the independent black republic of [[Haiti]].<ref name="WDL1">{{cite web|title=An Historical Account of the Black Empire of Hayti: Comprehending a View of the Principal Transactions in the Revolution of Saint Domingo: with Its Ancient and Modern State|url=http://www.wdl.org/en/item/381|publisher=World Digital Library|access-date=23 April 2013|archive-date=19 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219041358/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/381/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Panama]] also has an extensive history of slave rebellions going back to the 16th century. Slaves were brought to the [[isthmus]] from many regions in [[Africa]], including the modern day countries of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo|Congo]], [[Senegal]], [[Guinea]], and [[Mozambique]].  Immediately before their arrival on shore, or very soon after, many enslaved Africans revolted against their captors or participated in mass [[maroon (people)|maroon]]age or desertion. The freed Africans founded communities in the forests and mountains, organized [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] bands known as [[Cimarron people (Panama)|Cimarrones]]. They began a long guerrilla war against the [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Conquistadores]], sometimes in conjunction with nearby indigenous communities like the [[Guna people|Guna]] and the [[Guaymí]]. Despite massacres by the Spanish, the rebels fought until the Spanish crown was forced to concede to treaties that granted the Africans a life without Spanish violence and incursions. The leaders of the guerrilla revolts included [[Felipillo of Panama|Felipillo]], [[Bayano]], [[Juan de Dioso]], [[Domingo Congo]], Antón Mandinga, and [[Luis de Mozambique]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

In the 1730s, the militias of the [[Colony of Jamaica]] fought the [[Jamaican Maroons]] for a decade, before agreeing to sign peace treaties in 1739 and 1740, which recognised their freedom in five separate Maroon Towns.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

[[File:Soulèvement des esclaves à la Jamaïque en 1759 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Tacky's War]] in Jamaica (1760)]]

[[Tacky's War]] (1760) was a slave uprising in [[Jamaica]], which ran from May to July before it was put down by the British colonial government.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

The [[Suriname]] slave rebellion was marked by constant [[guerrilla]] warfare by [[Maroon (people)|Maroons]] and in 1765–1793 by the [[Aluku]]. This rebellion was led by [[Boni (Maroon leader)|Boni]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

The [[Berbice Slave Rebellion]] in [[Guyana]] in 1763 was led by [[Cuffy (person)|Cuffy]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Berbice Uprising in 1763 |url=https://eenigheid.slavenhandelmcc.nl/trajecten-van-de-reis-en/west-indie-en/grote-slavenopstand-1763/?lang=en |access-date=2025-03-13 |website=eenigheid.slavenhandelmcc.nl |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Cuba]] had slave revolts in 1795, 1798, 1802, 1805, 1812 (the [[José Antonio Aponte|Aponte]] revolt), 1825, 1827, 1829, 1833, 1834, 1835, 1838, 1839–43 and 1844 (the La Escalera conspiracy and revolt).{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Revolts on the Caribbean Islands===

[[File:Plate 2 Retreat of Lt Brady.jpg|thumb|Slaves force the retreat of European soldiers led by Lt Brady during [[Demerara rebellion of 1823]]]]

Vincent Brown, a professor of History and of African and African-American Studies at Harvard, has made a study of the Transatlantic Slave Trade. In 2013, Brown teamed up with Axis Maps to create an interactive map of Jamaican slave uprisings in the 18th century called, "Slave Revolt in Jamaica, 1760–1761, A Cartographic Narrative".<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://revolt.axismaps.com/map/ |title=Axismaps.com |access-date=2014-03-05 |archive-date=2021-04-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413060826/http://revolt.axismaps.com/map/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Brown's efforts have shown that the slave insurrection in Jamaica in 1760-61 was a carefully planned affair and not a spontaneous, chaotic eruption, as was often argued (due in large part to the lack of written records produced by the insurgents).<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://colorlines.com/archives/2013/10/this_scholar_created_an_interactive_map_of_slave_rebellions.html |title=Colorlines.com |access-date=2014-03-05 |archive-date=2014-03-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140318163744/http://colorlines.com/archives/2013/10/this_scholar_created_an_interactive_map_of_slave_rebellions.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>  [[Tacky's War]] was a widespread slave uprising across Jamaica in the 1760s.

Later, in 1795, several slave rebellions broke out across the Caribbean, influenced by the [[Haitian Revolution]]: {{Citation needed|reason=Your explanation here|date=January 2023}}

*In [[Martinique]] the slave rebellion broke out during the [[French Revolution]] which compared to the [[Haitian Revolution]] led by [[Toussaint Louverture]].
*In [[Jamaica]], the descendants of Africans who fought and escaped from slavery and established free communities in the mountainous interior of Jamaica ([[Jamaican Maroons|Maroons]]), fought to preserve their freedom from British colonialists, in what came to be known as the [[Second Maroon War]]. However, this featured just one of the five Maroon towns in Jamaica. 
*In [[Dominica]] there was the [[Colihault Uprising]]. 
*In [[Saint Lucia]] there was the [[Bush War (disambiguation)|Bush War]] in 1795.
*In the [[Saint Vincent (island)|Saint Vincent islands]] the [[Second Carib War]] broke out.
*In [[Grenada]] there was the [[Fedon Rebellion]].<ref name=cavehill>[http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/BNCCde/grenada/conference/papers/jacobsc.html "The fédons of Grenada, 1763–1814"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080831201746/http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/BNCCde/grenada/conference/papers/jacobsc.html |date=2008-08-31 }}. Posted by Curtis Jacobs. Retrieved March 10, 2013, to 18: 25 pm.</ref>
*[[Curaçao]] had a slave revolt in 1795, led by [[Tula (Curaçao)|Tula]].
*In [[Venezuela]], the insurrection led by [[José Leonardo Chirino]] occurred in 1795.
*In [[Barbados]], a slave revolt occurred in 1816, led by [[Bussa]].
*In [[Guyana]] there was the [[Demerara]] Rebellion of 1795.<ref name="McGowan">{{cite web|url=http://www.stabroeknews.com/index.pl/article?id=56501710
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927221229/http://www.stabroeknews.com/index.pl/article?id=56501710
|url-status = dead
|archive-date=September 27, 2007
|title=The 1763 and 1823 slave rebellions
|author=McGowan, Winston
|year=2006
|access-date=December 7, 2006
|publisher=Starbucks News}}</ref>
*In the [[British Virgin Islands]], minor slave revolts occurred in 1790, 1823 and 1830.
*In [[Cuba]], there were several revolts starting in 1825 with an uprising in Guamacaro and ending with the revolts of 1843 in Matanzas. These revolts have been widely studied by scholars such as Robert L. Paquette, Gloria García, Manuel Barcia, Aisha K. Finch and Michele Reid-Vazquez.
*In the [[Danish West Indies]] an 1848 slave revolt led to emancipation of all slaves in the Danish West Indies.
*In [[Puerto Rico]] in 1821, [[Marcos Xiorro]] planned and conspired to lead a slave revolt against the sugar plantation owners and the Spanish Colonial government. Even though the conspiracy was unsuccessful,  Xiorro achieved legendary status among the slaves and is part of Puerto Rico's folklore.<ref name="GB">"Slave revolts in Puerto Rico: conspiracies and uprisings, 1795–1873"; by: Guillermo A. Bar alt; Publisher Markus Wiener Publishers;  {{ISBN|978-1-55876-463-7}}</ref>
*The [[St. Joseph Mutiny]] of 1837 in [[Trinidad]], which was led by mutineers from the [[British Army]]'s [[West India Regiments|1st West India Regiment]]  (many of whom had been liberated from illegal [[slave ship]]s by the [[Royal Navy]]).<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/01440399108575034|first=Thomas|last=August|year=1991|title=Rebels with a cause: The St. Joseph Mutiny of 1837|journal=Slavery & Abolition|volume=12|issue=2|pages=73–91}}</ref>

===Brazil===
Many slave rebellions occurred in [[Brazil]], most famously the [[Malê Revolt]] of 1835<ref name="19th Century Jihad Movements of Western Sudan">{{cite web|url=http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/bahiaslaverevolts.html|publisher=[[Muhammad Sharif]]|title=A Continuity of the 19th Century Jihaad Movements of Western Sudan|access-date=2006-12-02|archive-date=2007-02-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070228055953/http://www.africanholocaust.net/news_ah/bahiaslaverevolts.html|url-status=live}}</ref> by the predominantly Muslim [[West African]] slaves at the time. The term ''malê'' was commonly used to refer to Muslims at the time from the [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]] word ''imale''.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}