Editing Sikkim (section)

== Geography ==
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| footer = [[Kangchenjunga]], the third [[List of highest mountains|highest mountain in the world]], near the [[Zemu Glacier]].
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Situated in the [[Himalaya]]n mountains, the state of Sikkim is characterised by mountainous terrain. Almost the entire state is hilly, with an elevation ranging from {{convert|280|m|ft}} in the south at the border with West Bengal to {{convert|8586|m|ft}} in the northern peaks near Nepal and Tibet. The summit of [[Kangchenjunga]], the world's third-highest peak, is the state's highest point, situated on the border between Sikkim and [[Nepal]].<ref name="kang">{{cite book |last=Madge |first=Tim |title=Last Hero: Bill Tilman, a Biography of the Explorer |publisher=Mountaineers Books |year=1995 |page=93 |isbn= 978-0-89886-452-6}}</ref> For the most part, the land is unfit for agriculture because of the rocky, precipitous slopes. However, some hill slopes have been converted into [[Terrace farming|terrace farms]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

[[File:Tibet-PHOTO-Satellite--NASA-Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer(MODIS) show the high, arid, Tibetan Plateau in Asia. Tibet lies north of the Himalaya Mountains in Nepal---Tibet.A2002343.0445.1km.jpg|left|thumb|Sikkim is in lower center of image of the [[Tibetan Plateau]]- ([[NASA]] Satellite photo).]]

Numerous snow-fed streams have carved out river valleys in the west and south of the state. These streams combine into the major [[Teesta River]] and its tributary, the [[Rangeet]], which flow through the state from north to south.<ref>[http://sikkim.nic.in/sws/glim_riv.htm "Rivers in Sikkim"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111015180108/http://sikkim.nic.in/sws/glim_riv.htm |date=15 October 2011}}. Sikkim.nic.in. Retrieved 13 October 2011.</ref> About a third of the state is heavily forested. The Himalayan mountains surround the northern, eastern and western borders of Sikkim. The Lower Himalayas, lying in the southern reaches of the state, are the most densely populated.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

[[File:Sikkim-1955-U502 NG45 3 4.jpg|thumb|Detailed 1:250k scale, 1955 US Army map of Sikkim showing major river valleys, glaciers, lakes, peaks (height in feet) and Mines. One could see more concentration of glaciers at the north-western part of Sikkim around [[Kangchenjunga]] ({{convert|28,168|ft}}).]]

The state has 28 mountain peaks, more than 80 [[glaciers]],<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dstsikkim.gov.in/glacier/pressrelese.htm | title = First commission on study of glaciers launched by Sikkim | publisher = dstsikkim.gov.in | date = 18 January 2008 | access-date = 19 June 2011 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110721155637/http://dstsikkim.gov.in/glacier/pressrelese.htm | archive-date = 21 July 2011 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> 227 high-altitude lakes (including the [[Tsongmo Lake|Tsongmo]], [[Gurudongmar]] and [[Khecheopalri Lake]]s), five major [[hot springs]], and more than 100 rivers and streams. Eight [[mountain pass]]es connect the state to Tibet, Bhutan and Nepal.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kapadia |first=Harish |chapter=Appendix |title=Across peaks & passes in Darjeeling & Sikkim |publisher=Indus Publishing |year=2001 |page=154 |isbn=978-81-7387-126-9}}</ref>

Sikkim's hot springs are renowned for their [[Hot spring#Therapeutic uses|medicinal and therapeutic value]]. Among the state's most notable hot springs are those at Phurchachu, [[Yumthang Valley|Yumthang]], Borang, Ralang, Taram-chu and Yumey Samdong. The springs, which have a high [[sulphur]] content, are located near river banks; some are known to emit [[hydrogen]].{{sfn|Choudhury|2006|p=11}} The average temperature of the water in these hot springs is {{convert|50|°C|°F}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hooker |first=Joseph Dalton |author-link=Joseph Dalton Hooker |title=Himalayan Journals: Notes of a Naturalist |publisher=John Murray |location=London |volume=II |year=1855 |page=125}}</ref>

===Geology===
[[File:Kanchenjunga waterfalls, Pelling.jpg|thumb|A waterfall in Sikkim]]
The hills of Sikkim mainly consist of [[gneiss]] and [[schist]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Geologic map of Sikkim |url=http://sikenvis.nic.in/Database/GSI_4420.aspx |url-status=live |access-date=10 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810170833/http://sikenvis.nic.in/Database/GSI_4420.aspx |archive-date=10 August 2017}}</ref> which [[Weathering|weather]] to produce generally poor and shallow brown [[clay]] soils. The soil is coarse, with large concentrations of [[iron oxide]]; it ranges from neutral to [[acidic]] and is lacking in organic and mineral nutrients. This type of soil tends to support [[evergreen]] and [[deciduous forest]]s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bhattacharya |first=B. |title=Sikkim: Land and People |publisher=Omsons Publications |year=1997 |pages=7–10 |isbn=978-81-7117-153-8}}</ref>

The rock consists of [[phyllite]]s and schists, and is highly susceptible to weathering and erosion. This, combined with the state's heavy rainfall, causes extensive soil erosion and the loss of soil nutrients through [[Leaching (agriculture)|leaching]]. As a result, landslides are frequent, often isolating rural towns and villages from the major urban centres.<ref>{{cite book |chapter=Terrain Analysis and Spatial Assessment of Landslide Hazards in Parts of Sikkim |title=Journal of the Geological Society of India v. 47 |year=1996 |page=491}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
The state has five seasons: winter, summer, spring, autumn, and monsoon season. Sikkim's climate ranges from [[sub-tropical]] in the south to [[tundra]] in the north. Most of the inhabited regions of Sikkim experience a [[temperate]] climate, with temperatures seldom exceeding {{convert|28|°C|°F}} in summer. The average annual temperature for most of Sikkim is around {{convert|18|°C|°F}}.{{Citation needed|date=May 2022}}

Sikkim is one of the few states in India to receive regular snowfall. The [[snow line]] ranges from {{convert|6100|m|ft}} in the south of the state to {{convert|4900|m|ft}} in the north.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Hooker | first = Joseph Dalton | author-link = Joseph Dalton Hooker | year = 1854 | title = Himalayan Journals: Notes of a Naturalist | edition = version 2 | publisher = John Murray | page = 396 }}</ref> The tundra-type region in the north is snowbound for four months every year, and the temperature drops below {{convert|0|°C|°F}} almost every night.{{sfn|Choudhury|2006|p=11}} In north-western Sikkim, the peaks are frozen year-round;{{sfn|Choudhury|2006|p=13}} because of the high altitude, temperatures in the mountains can drop to as low as {{convert|-40|°C|°F}} in winter.

During the monsoon, heavy rains increase the risk of [[landslide]]s. The record for the longest period of continuous rain in Sikkim is 11&nbsp;days. [[Fog]] affects many parts of the state during winter and the monsoons, making transportation perilous.<ref>Hooker p. 409</ref>

=== Flora and fauna ===
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 | footer = Noble orchid (top) is Sikkim's state flower. Rhododendron is its state tree; about 40 species of rhododendron bloom late April – mid May across the state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pannatigerreserve.in/kids/state.htm|title=State Animals, Birds, Trees and Flower|access-date=26 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013002319/http://www.pannatigerreserve.in/kids/state.htm|archive-date=13 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
 | image1 = Dendrobium nobile - flower view 01.jpg
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Sikkim is situated in an [[ecological hotspot]] of the lower Himalayas, one of only three among the [[ecoregions of India]].<ref name="ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=Alexander |display-authors=etal |date=29 March 2017 |title=Integrating ethnobiological knowledge into biodiversity conservation in the Eastern Himalayas |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=13 |issue=21 |pages= 21|doi=10.1186/s13002-017-0148-9 |pmid=28356115 |pmc=5372287 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="O'Neill_2019">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R.| date=2019 |title=Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=20 |issue=e00715 |pages=19 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The forested regions of the state exhibit a diverse range of [[fauna (animals)|fauna]] and [[flora (plants)|flora]]. Owing to its altitudinal gradation, the state has a wide variety of plants, from tropical species to temperate, alpine and tundra ones, and is perhaps one of the few regions to exhibit such a diversity within such a small area. Nearly 81 per cent of the area of Sikkim comes under the administration of its forest department.<ref name="forest-dept">{{Cite web | url = http://sikkim.nic.in/sws/sikk_fore.htm | title = Forests in Sikkim | publisher = Forest Department, Government of Sikkim | access-date = 3 June 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090517214937/http://sikkim.nic.in/sws/sikk_fore.htm | archive-date = 17 May 2009 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

Sikkim is home to around 5,000 species of flowering plants, 515 rare [[orchidaceae|orchids]], 60 [[primula]] species, 36 [[rhododendron]] species, 11 [[oak]] varieties, 23 [[bamboo]] varieties, 16 [[pinophyta|conifer]] species, 362 types of [[fern]]s and ferns allies, 8 [[tree fern]]s, and over 900 medicinal plants.<ref name="ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com"/><ref name="oneill_khecheopalri"/> A relative of the [[Poinsettia]], locally known as "Christmas Flower", can be found in abundance in the mountainous state. The [[Dendrobium nobile|Noble Dendrobium]] is the official flower of Sikkim, while the [[rhododendron]] is the [[List of Indian state trees|state tree]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pannatigerreserve.in/kids/state.htm|title=State Animals, Birds, Trees and Flowers of India|publisher=Panna Tiger Reserve|access-date=26 July 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013002319/http://www.pannatigerreserve.in/kids/state.htm|archive-date=13 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Orchids, [[ficus|figs]], [[Lauraceae|laurel]], [[banana]]s, [[Shorea robusta|sal]] trees and bamboo grow in the [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]] of the lower altitudes of Sikkim. In the temperate elevations above {{convert|1500|m|ft}} there are [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]], where oaks, [[chestnut]]s, [[maple]]s, [[birch]]es, [[alder]]s, and [[magnolia]]s grow in large numbers, as well as [[Himalayan subtropical pine forests]], dominated by [[Chir pine]]. [[Alpine climate|Alpine-type]] vegetation is typically found between an altitude of {{convert|3500|to|5000|m|ft}}. In lower elevations are found [[juniper]], pine, [[fir]]s, [[Cupressus|cypresses]] and rhododendrons from the [[Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]]. Higher up are [[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]] and high-altitude wetlands, which are home to a wide variety of rhododendrons and wildflowers.<ref name="O'Neill_2019"/><ref name="oneill_khecheopalri"/>

[[File:Red panda sikkim.jpg|thumb|right|The [[red panda]] is the state animal of Sikkim.]]
The fauna of Sikkim include the [[snow leopard]],<ref>Wilson DE, Mittermeier RA (eds) (2009) ''Handbook of the Mammals of the World''. Vol. 1. Carnivores. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona</ref> [[musk deer]], <!-- the [[bhoral]], --> [[Himalayan tahr]], [[red panda]], [[Himalayan marmot]], [[Himalayan serow]], [[Himalayan goral]], [[muntjac]], [[common langur]], [[Asian black bear]], [[clouded leopard]],<ref>{{cite iucn |author=Gray, T. |author2=Borah, J. |author3=Coudrat, C.N.Z. |author4=Ghimirey, Y. |author5=Giordano, A. |author6=Greenspan, E. |author7=Petersen, W. |author8=Rostro-García, S. |author9=Shariff, M. |author10=Wai-Ming, W. |date=2021 |title=''Neofelis nebulosa'' |volume=2021 |page=e.T14519A198843258 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-2.RLTS.T14519A198843258.en |access-date=13 November 2021}}</ref> [[marbled cat]], [[leopard cat]],<ref>{{Cite book | title = Mammals of Nepal | last = Shrestha | first = Tej Kumar | year = 1997 | isbn = 978-0-9524390-6-6 | pages = 350–371 | publisher = Bimala Shrestha }}</ref> [[dhole]], [[Tibetan wolf]], [[hog badger]], [[binturong]], and [[Felis chaus affinis|Himalayan jungle cat]]. Among the animals more commonly found in the alpine zone are [[yak]]s, mainly reared for their [[milk]], meat, and as a beast of burden.

The [[Bird|avifauna]] of Sikkim include the [[impeyan pheasant]], [[Satyr tragopan|crimson horned pheasant]], [[snow partridge]], [[Tibetan snowcock]], [[bearded vulture]] and [[griffon vulture]], as well as [[golden eagle]]s, [[quail]]s, [[plover]]s, [[woodcock]]s, [[sandpiper]]s, [[pigeon]]s, [[Old World flycatcher]]s, [[Old World babbler|babblers]] and robins. Sikkim has more than 550 species of birds, some of which have been declared [[endangered species|endangered]].<ref name="O'Neill_2019"/>

Sikkim also has a rich diversity of [[arthropods]], many of which remain unstudied.<ref name="O'Neill_2019"/> Some of the most understudied species are Sikkimese arthropods, specifically [[butterfly|butterflies]]. Of the approximately 1,438 butterfly species found in the [[Indian subcontinent]], 695 have been recorded in Sikkim.{{sfn|Evans|1932|p=23}} These include the endangered [[Teinopalpus imperialis|Kaiser-i-hind]], the [[Meandrusa payeni|Yellow Gorgon]] and the [[Bhutanitis lidderdalii|Bhutan Glory]].{{sfn|Haribal|2003|p=9}}

====National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries====
List of National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of Sikkim:<ref>{{cite web |title=Wildlife |url=https://sikkim.gov.in/departments/forest-environment-and-wildlife-department/wildlife |website =Government of Sikkim |access-date=14 September 2024}}</ref>
* [[Khangchendzonga National Park]]
* [[Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Kyongnosla Alpine Sanctuary]]
* [[Maenam Wildlife Sanctuary]]
* [[Varsey Rhododendron Sanctuary|Barsey Rhododendron Sanctuary]]
* [[Shingba Rhododendron Sanctuary]]
* [[Kitam Bird Sanctuary]]
* [[Sling Dong Faireanum Orchid Conservation Reserve]]