Editing Reduplication (section)

===Function and meaning===
In the [[Malayo-Polynesian]] family, reduplication is used to form plurals (among many other functions):
*[[Malay language|Malay]] ''rumah'' "house", ''rumah-rumah'' "houses".

In pre-1972 [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] orthography, ''2'' was shorthand for the reduplication that forms plurals: ''orang'' "person", ''orang-orang'' or ''orang2'' "people".{{sfn|Omar|1989}} This orthography has resurfaced widely in text messaging and other forms of electronic communication.

The [[Nama language]] uses reduplication to increase the force of a [[verb]]: ''go'', "look;", ''go-go'' "examine with attention".

[[Chinese language|Chinese]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] do not make morphological use of reduplication, but some words are formed this way, often with a collective sense: {{lang|zh|人}} ''rén'' "person", {{lang|zh|人人}} ''rénrén'' "everybody"; {{lang|ja|時}} ''toki'' "time", ''tokidoki'' {{lang|ja|時々}} "sometimes, from time to time".  The [[iteration mark]] {{lang|ja|々}} can be used to indicate reduplication, although in Chinese the iteration mark is no longer used in standard writing and is often found only in [[calligraphy]].

[[Indo-European languages]] formerly used reduplication to form a number of [[verb]] forms, especially in the [[preterite]] or [[perfect (grammar)|perfect]].  In the older Indo-European languages, many such verbs survive:

*''spondeo'', ''spopondi'' ([[Latin]], "I vow, I vowed")
* {{lang|grc|λείπω, λέλοιπα}} ([[Greek language|Greek]], "I leave, I left")
* {{lang|grc|δέρκομαι, δέδορκα}} (Greek, "I see, I saw"; these Greek examples exhibit [[ablaut]] as well as reduplication)
*''háitan'', ''haíháit'' ([[Gothic language|Gothic]], "to name, I named")

Those forms do not survive in Modern English but existed in its parent [[Germanic languages]]. Many verbs in the Indo-European languages exhibit reduplication in the [[present tense|present]] stem, rather than the perfect stem, often with a different vowel from that used for the perfect: Latin ''gigno, genui'' ("I beget, I begat") and Greek τίθημι, ἔθηκα, τέθηκα (I place, I placed, I have placed). Other Indo-European verbs used reduplication as a derivational process: compare Latin ''sto'' ("I stand") and ''sisto'' ("I remain"). All of those Indo-European inherited reduplicating forms are subject to reduction by other phonological laws.

Reduplication can be used to refer to the most prototypical instance of a word's meaning. In such a case, it is called [[contrastive focus reduplication]]. Finnish colloquial speech uses the process; nouns can be reduplicated to indicate genuinity, completeness, originality and being uncomplicated, as opposed to being fake, incomplete, complicated or fussy. It can be thought as compound word formation. For example, ''Söin jäätelöä ja karkkia, sekä tietysti ruokaruokaa.'' "I ate ice cream and candy, and of course food-food". Here, "food-food" is contrasted to "junk-food". One may say, "En ollut eilen koulussa, koska olin kipeä. Siis kipeäkipeä" ("I wasn't at school yesterday because I was sick. Sick-sick, that is"); that means that one was actually suffering from an illness instead of making up excuses, as usual.

* ''ruoka'' "food", ''ruokaruoka'' "proper food", as opposed to snacks
* ''peli'' "game", ''pelipeli'' "complete game", as opposed to a [[Mod (computer gaming)|mod]]
* ''puhelin'' "phone", ''puhelinpuhelin'' "phone for talking", as opposed to a pocket computer
* ''kauas'' "far away", ''kauaskauas'' "unquestionably far away"
* ''koti'' "home", ''kotikoti'' "home of your parents", as opposed to one's current place of residence

Words can be reduplicated with their case morphemes, as in ''lomalla lomalla'' ("away, on vacation, on leave"), where the adessive morpheme -''-lla'' appears twice.

In [[Swiss German]], the verbs ''gah'' or ''goh'' "go", ''cho'' "come", ''la'' or ''lo'' "let" and ''aafa'' or ''aafo'' "begin" reduplicate when they are combined with other verbs.
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
| Si chunt üse Chrischtboum cho schmücke.
| she comes our {Christmas tree} '''come''' adorn
| She comes to adorn our Christmas tree.}}
{{col-break}}
{{interlinear|indent=2
| Si lat ne nid la schlafe.
| she lets him not '''let''' sleep
| She doesn't let him sleep.}}
{{col-end}}

In some [[Salishan languages]], reduplication can mark both diminution and plurality, with one process being applied to each end of the word, as in the following example from [[Shuswap language|Shuswap]]. Note that the transcription is not comparable to the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], but the reduplication of both initial and final portions of the root is clear: ''ṣōk!Emē'’n'' 'knife' reduplicated as ''ṣuk!ṣuk!Emen'’me’n'' 'plural small knives' (Haeberlin 1918:159). Reduplication has been found to be a major part of Salish languages.{{sfn|Czaykowska-Higgins|Kinkade|1998|pp=18ff}}