Editing Prince Rupert of the Rhine (section)

==Second English Civil War and Interregnum==
[[File:Prince Rupert of the Rhine.jpg|thumb|Rupert at the start of the [[Interregnum (England)|Interregnum]], after [[William Dobson]].|alt=The picture consists of Rupert's head and shoulders, with long flowing hair, looking towards the viewer. He is wearing a large sash across his chest and throat. In this woodcut, he appears tired and world weary.]]

After the end of the [[First English Civil War]] Rupert was employed by the young King [[Louis XIV of France]] to fight the Spanish during the final years of the Thirty Years' War.<ref>Kitson, p. 19.</ref> Rupert's military employment was complicated by his promises to the Holy Roman Emperor that had led to his release from captivity in 1642, and his ongoing commitment to the English Royalist faction in exile.<ref>Kitson, p. 18.</ref> He also became a [[Knight of the Garter]] in 1642. Throughout the period Rupert was inconvenienced by his lack of secure income, and his ongoing feuds with other leading members of the Royalist circle.<ref>Spencer, pp. 189, 242–243, 254.</ref>

[[File:Coat of arms of Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, KG.png|thumb|right|Coat of arms of Prince Rupert as a [[Knight of the Garter]], which he was invested with in 1642.]]

===Service in the French army===

Rupert first travelled to the Royal court in exile at [[Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye|St Germain]] but found it still dominated by the [[Henrietta Maria of France|Queen]] and her favourite, Rupert's enemy Digby.<ref name="Spencer, p.180">Spencer, p. 180.</ref> Instead, Rupert moved on, accepting a well paid commission from [[Anne of Austria]] to serve Louis XIV as a ''[[Brigadier general (France)|mareschal de camp]]'', subject to Rupert being free to leave French service to fight for King Charles, should he be called upon to do so.<ref name="Spencer, p.180"/> In 1647, Rupert fought under Marshal [[Jean de Gassion]] against the Spanish. After a three-week siege, Rupert took the powerful fortress of [[La Bassée]] through quiet negotiations with the enemy commander—an impressive accomplishment, and one that won him favour in French court circles.<ref>Spencer, p. 186.</ref> Gassion and Rupert were ambushed shortly afterwards by a Spanish party; during the resulting fight, Rupert was shot in the head and seriously injured. Afterwards, Gassion noted: "Monsieur, I am most annoyed that you are wounded." "And me also," Rupert is recorded as replying.<ref name=SpencerP187>Spencer, p. 187.</ref> Gassion was himself killed shortly afterwards, and Rupert returned to St Germain to recuperate.<ref name=SpencerP187/>

===Service in the Royalist navy===

In 1648, the relatively brief [[Second English Civil War]] broke out, and Rupert informed the French King that he would be returning to King Charles's service.<ref>Spencer, p. 192.</ref> The Parliamentary navy [[mutinied]] in favour of the King and sailed for Holland, providing the Royalists with a major fleet for the first time since the start of the civil conflict; Rupert joined the fleet under the command of the [[James II of England|Duke of York]], who assumed the rank of [[Lord High Admiral of the United Kingdom|Lord High Admiral]].<ref name="Spencer, p.193">Spencer, p. 193.</ref>

Rupert argued that the fleet should be used to rescue the King, then being held prisoner on the [[Isle of Wight]], while others advised sailing in support of the fighting in the north. The fleet itself rapidly lost discipline, with many vessels' crews focussing on seizing local ships and cargoes.<ref name="Spencer, p.193"/> This underlined a major problem for the Royalists—the cost of maintaining the new fleet was well beyond their means. Discipline continued to deteriorate and Rupert had to intervene personally several times, including defusing one group of [[mutinous]] sailors by suddenly dangling the ringleader over the side of his vessel and threatening to drop him into the sea. Most of the fleet finally switched sides once more, returning to England in late 1648.<ref>Spencer, pp. 197–198.</ref>

Then, following a degree of reconciliation with Charles, Rupert obtained command of the Royalist fleet himself. The intention was to restore Royalist finances by using the remaining vessels of the fleet to conduct a campaign of organised [[piracy]] against English shipping across the region.<ref>Kitson, p. 54.</ref> One of the obstacles that this plan faced was the growing strength of the Parliamentary fleet and the presence of [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]], one of the finest admirals of the period, as Rupert's opponent during the campaign.<ref>Spencer, p. 120.</ref>

[[File:RupertsJourney.png|thumb|Rupert's maritime campaign in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean and Caribbean Seas, 1650–1653|alt=A blue and white map showing Rupert's journey from Ireland, across the Atlantic into the Mediterranean, then down the African coastline, across to the West Indies and back to France.]]
Rupert's naval campaign formed two phases. The first involved the Royalist fleet sailing from [[Kinsale]] in Ireland to [[Lisbon]] in Portugal. He took three large ships, {{ship|English ship|Constant Reformation|1619|6}}, the ''Convertine'' and the ''Swallow'', accompanied by four smaller vessels.<ref>Kitson, pp. 50, 69.</ref> Rupert sailed to Lisbon taking several prizes en route,<ref>Kitson, p. 69.</ref> where he received a warm welcome from King [[John IV of Portugal|John IV]], the ruler of recently independent Portugal, who was a supporter of Charles II. Blake arrived shortly afterwards with a Parliamentary fleet, and an armed stand-off ensued.<ref>Kitson, pp. 70, 73.</ref> Tensions rose, skirmishes began to break out and King John became increasingly keen for his Royalist guests to leave. In October 1650, Rupert's fleet, now comprising six vessels, broke out and headed into the [[Mediterranean]].<ref>Kitson, p. 83.</ref> Still pursued by Blake, the Royalist fleet manoeuvred up the Spanish coast, steadily losing vessels to their pursuers.<ref>Kitson, pp. 86–87.</ref>

The second phase of the campaign then began. Rupert crossed back into the Atlantic and, during 1651, cut west to the [[Azores]], capturing vessels as he went. He intended to continue on to the [[West Indies]], where there would be many rich targets.<ref>Kitson, p. 93.</ref> Instead he encountered a late summer storm, leading to the sinking of the ''Constant Reformation'' with the loss of 333 lives—almost including Rupert's brother, Prince [[Maurice of the Palatinate|Maurice]], who only just escaped<ref>Spencer, p. 225.</ref> — and a great deal of captured treasure. Turning back to regroup, repair and re-equip in early 1652, Rupert's reduced force moored at [[Ras Nouadhibou|Cape Blanc]], an island near what is now [[Mauritania]].<ref>Spencer, p. 227.</ref> Rupert took the opportunity to explore and acquired a [[Moorish]] servant boy, who remained in his service for many years. Rupert also explored 150 miles up the [[Gambia River]], taking two Spanish vessels as prizes and contracting [[malaria]] in the process.<ref>Spencer, pp. 228–230.</ref>

Rupert then finally made a successful crossing into the Caribbean, landing first at [[Saint Lucia]], before continuing up the chain of the [[Lesser Antilles|Antilles]] to the [[Virgin Islands]]. There the fleet was hit by a [[hurricane]], which scattered the ships and sank the ''Defiance'', this time with Prince Maurice on board.<ref>Spencer, p. 236.</ref> It was a while before Maurice's death became certain, which came as a terrible blow to Rupert. He was forced to return to Europe, arriving in France in March 1653 with a fleet of five ships.<ref>Spencer, p. 242.</ref> It became clear, as the profits and losses of the piracy campaign were calculated, that the venture had not been as profitable as hoped. This complicated tensions in the Royalist court, and Charles II and Rupert eventually split the spoils, after which Rupert, tired and a little bitter, returned to France to recuperate from the long campaign.<ref>Spencer, p. 244.</ref>

In 1654, Rupert appears to have been involved in a plot to assassinate [[Oliver Cromwell]], an event that would then have been followed by a [[coup]], the landing of a small army in [[Sussex]], and the restoration of Charles II. Charles himself is understood to have rejected the assassination proposal, but three conspirators—who implicated Rupert in the plan—were arrested and confessed in London.<ref>Spencer, p. 255.</ref>

Rupert's presence at the royal court continued to be problematic; as in 1643, he was regarded by [[Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon|Edward Hyde]] (later [[Earl of Clarendon]]) and others as a bellicose figure and an obstacle to peace negotiations; in 1655 Rupert left for Germany.<ref>Spencer, p. 256.</ref>

===Service in Germany===
[[File:The Great Executioner, Prince Rupert of the Rhine, 1658.jpg|thumb|Rupert's largest and most famous [[mezzotint]] work, ''[[The Great Executioner]]'', considered by critic Antony Griffiths to be "one of the greatest mezzotints"|alt=The gray tone picture shows a European man dressed in informal 17th-century clothing holding a sword, on which Rupert's name can just be made out, in one hand, and the severed head of John the Baptist in the other. The mezzotint engraving appears fluid, with broad sweeps of detail.]]
After his quarrel with the Royalist court in exile, Rupert travelled to [[Heidelberg]] to visit his brother [[Charles I Louis, Elector Palatine|Charles Louis]], now partially restored as [[Elector Palatine]], where the two had an ambivalent reunion.<ref>Kiston, p. 118.</ref> Charles Louis and Rupert had not been friendly as children and had almost ended up on opposite sides during the Civil War. To make matters worse, Charles Louis had been deprived of half [[Electoral Palatinate|the old Palatinate]] under the [[Peace of Westphalia]], leaving him badly short of money, although he still remained responsible under the Imperial laws of [[apanage]] for providing for his younger brother and had offered the sum of £375 per annum, which Rupert had accepted.<ref>Kitson, pp. 118–119.</ref> Rupert travelled on to [[Vienna]], where he attempted to claim the £15,000 compensation allocated to him under the Peace of Westphalia from the Emperor. [[Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand III]] warmly welcomed him, but was unable to pay such a sum immediately—instead, he would have to pay in installments, to the disadvantage of Rupert.<ref>Kitson, p. 119.</ref>

Over the next twelve months, Rupert was asked by the [[Francesco I d'Este, Duke of Modena|Duke of Modena]] in Northern Italy to raise an army against the [[Papal States]]—having done so, and with the army stationed in the Palatinate, the enterprise collapsed, with the Duke requesting that Rupert invade Spanish held [[Milan]] instead.<ref name="Kitson, p.120">Kitson, p. 120.</ref> Rupert moved on, having placed his brother Charles Louis in some diplomatic difficulties with Spain.<ref name="Kitson, p.120"/> Rupert travelled onwards, continuing to attempt to convince Ferdinand to back Charles II's efforts to regain his throne.<ref>Kiston, p. 121.</ref>

In 1656, relations between Rupert and Charles Louis deteriorated badly. Rupert had fallen in love with [[Marie Luise von Degenfeld|Louise von Degenfeld]], one of his sister-in-law's [[maids of honour]].<ref>Spencer, p. 248.</ref> One of Rupert's notes proffering his affections accidentally fell into the possession of Charles Louis' wife [[Landgravine Charlotte of Hesse-Kassel|Charlotte]], who believed it was written to her. Charlotte was keen to engage in an affair with Rupert and became unhappy when she was declined and the mistake explained. Degenfeld was uninterested in Rupert, but was engaged in an affair with Charles Louis; this was discovered in due course, leading to the annulment of the marriage.<ref>Kitson, p. 122.</ref> Rupert, for his part, was unhappy that Charles Louis could not endow him with a suitable estate, and the two parted on bad terms in 1657, Rupert refusing ever to return to the Palatinate again and taking up employment under Ferdinand III in his [[Kingdom of Hungary]].<ref>Kitson, p. 123.</ref>

===Interest in art===
During this period Rupert became closely involved in the development of [[mezzotint]], a "negative" or [[Intaglio (printmaking)|intaglio]] printmaking process which eventually superseded the older [[woodcut]] process. Rupert appears to have told a range of associates that he had conceived of the mezzotint process through having watched a soldier scrape the rust from the barrel of his musket during a military campaign. [[John Evelyn]] credited Rupert as the inventor of the technique in 1662, and Rupert's story was further popularised by [[Horace Walpole]] during the 18th century.<ref>Salaman, p. 60.</ref>
Considerable academic debate surrounds the issue, but the modern consensus is that mezzotint was instead invented in 1642 by [[Ludwig von Siegen]], a German lieutenant-colonel who was also an amateur artist. Siegen may or may not have met Rupert: Siegen had worked as [[chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]], and probably part-tutor, to Rupert's young cousin [[William VI, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]], with whom Rupert discussed the technique in letters from 1654. Rupert did, however, become a noted artist in mezzotint in his own right. He produced a few stylish prints in the technique, mostly interpretations of existing paintings, and introduced the form to England after the [[English Restoration|Restoration]], though it was [[Wallerant Vaillant]], Rupert's artistic assistant or tutor, who first popularised the process and exploited it commercially. Rupert's most famous and largest art work, ''[[The Great Executioner]]'', produced in 1658, is still regarded by critics such as Arthur Hind and Antony Griffiths as full of "brilliance and energy",<ref>Hind, p. 263.</ref> "superb" and "one of the greatest mezzotints" ever produced;<ref>Griffiths, p. 85.</ref> other important works by Rupert include the ''Head of Titian'' and ''The Standard Bearer''.<ref>Spencer, p. 252.</ref>