Editing Palmyra Atoll (section)

== History ==
=== Discovery ===
[[File:PalmyraNorthBeach.jpg|thumb|left|Palmyra's North Beach]]

The first known sighting of Palmyra came in 1798 aboard the American [[seal hunting|sealing]] ship ''Betsy'' on a voyage to Asia, according to the [[memoir]] of Captain [[Edmund Fanning]] of [[Stonington, Connecticut]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Voyages and Discoveries in the South Seas 1792–1832 |url=https://archive.org/details/voyagesdiscoveri00fann/page/166/mode/2up |author=Edmund Fanning |date=1924 |location=Salem, Massachusetts |publisher=Marine Research Society |pages=163–167}}</ref> Fanning wrote that he had awakened three times during the night before, and after the third time took it as a premonition, ordering ''Betsy'' to [[heave to]] for the rest of the night. The next morning, ''Betsy'' resumed sailing, but only about a [[nautical mile]] farther on, he believed he sighted the reef later known as Palmyra Island. It might have been wrecked if the ship continued on her course at night.<ref name="Thomas">Thomas, H.F., "Premonition of Danger" in "Connecticut Circle". ''Fate'', March 1953; see also Gaddis, Vincent H. ''Invisible Horizons'' Ace Books, Inc., 1965.</ref> Captain Fanning's claim to have discovered Palmyra itself has been challenged, on the view that he had only reached [[Kingman Reef]] {{convert|34|mi|abbr=off|sp=us}} away and could not possibly have seen Palmyra from that distance.<ref name=Maude>{{Cite journal|title=Post-Spanish discoveries in the central Pacific|journal=Journal of the Polynesian Society|volume=70| issue = 1|date=1961|author=H. E. Maude|page=67|url=http://www.jps.auckland.ac.nz/document.php?wid=3113&action=null#note94|access-date=November 8, 2016}}</ref> On page 3, the Baltimore newspaper ''The Telegraphe and Daily Advertiser'' of July 29, 1803, appears to quote directly from Fanning's journal: "We supposed that we saw land from the masthead to the southward of the shoal (Kingman Reef) but it was so hazy we were not certain." This would stand in conflict with Fanning's book of 1833, in which he, while referring to Kingman Reef, wrote "I went aloft, and with the aid of the glass could plainly see the land over it, far in the south."<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Armchair Navigator I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LraODwAAQBAJ&q=armchair+navigator+steve+dehner&pg=PA1|last=Dehner|first=Steve|date = April 2019}}</ref>

On November 7, 1802, the ship ''Palmyra'', under Captain Cornelius Sowle (sometimes spelled "Sawle"), was shipwrecked on the reef, which took the vessel's name.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Captain Cornelius Sowle on the Pacific Ocean |journal=The Washington Historical Quarterly |volume=24 |issue=4 |date=October 1933 |pages=243–249 |first=F.W. |last=Howay |publisher=University of Washington |jstor = 40475540}}</ref> Lacking a navigable boat passage through the reef from the sea, it had never been inhabited. A lack of archaeological surveys on the atoll leaves the question of habitation before European contact open. As a result, no [[marae]], [[basalt]] artifacts or evidence of [[Polynesian culture|Polynesian]], [[Micronesian people|Micronesian]] or other pre-European native settlements before 1802 have been reported on Palmyra.<ref>{{cite web | title= Coral Reef Ecosystem Monitoring Report for the Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument 2000–2017, Chapter 2: Palmyra Atoll| last= Brainard| first= Russell E.| display-authors=et al| publisher= NOAA Pacific Islands Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admin., U.S. Dept. of Commerce | series= PIFSC Special Publication| number= SP-19-006b| location= Washington, D.C.| date= 2019|page= 11| url= https://repository.library.noaa.gov/view/noaa/23421/noaa_23421_DS1.pdf| access-date=24 June 2021}}</ref> At the time of his discovery, Captain Sowle wrote:

<blockquote>There are no inhabitants on the island, nor was any fresh water found; but cocoanuts{{sic}} of a very large size, are in great abundance; and fish of various kinds and in large shoals surround the land.<ref>{{cite news|author=Capt. Sawle, ''Palmyra''|title=Letter to the Editor|newspaper=Aurora for the Country|location=Philadelphia|date=September 6, 1806}}</ref><ref name=sowlediscovery>{{cite news|title=Report|newspaper=The Naval Chronicle|volume=XII|pages=464–465|date=1804|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/95|access-date=2017-03-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307123502/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/95|archive-date=2017-03-07|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>

=== ''Esperanza'' treasure ===
[[File:PalmyraLagoon1.jpg|thumb|Palmyra Lagoon]]
[[File:Line5303 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|Sand bar and islet of Palmyra]]
During the 19th and 20th centuries, stories circulated in the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] of a large [[treasure]] of [[gold]], [[silver]] and [[Gemstone|precious stones]] (sometimes described as [[Inca society#Metalwork|Inca treasures]]) that had been looted in the [[Viceroyalty of Peru]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0103/feature2/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202044059/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0103/feature2/|archive-date=December 2, 2013|title=The Treasured Islands of Palmyra|last=Chadwick|first=Alex|date=2001|publisher=NationalGeographic.com|access-date=March 5, 2017}}</ref> A crew loaded it in secret onto the ship ''Esperanza'' in [[Callao]] harbor, [[Peru]], and embarked into the [[Pacific Ocean]] on January 1, 1816, bound for the [[Spanish West Indies]].

According to a survivor, seaman James Hines, the ''Esperanza'' was caught in a storm that [[Dismasting|dismasted]] and damaged the ship. After that, it was attacked and boarded by pirates, who loaded the treasure and surviving crew onto their own ship. The ''Esperanza'' sank, and the pirates and their captives sailed west across the Pacific bound for [[Macao]].

After 43 days, the pirates' ship met a storm, lost course, and struck the [[coral reef]] surrounding Palmyra Island, breaking the mast. The 90 men aboard pulled the ship closer to land, but it was not serviceable. They offloaded the treasure to the island, distributed some, and buried the rest. They repaired part of their boat, and most crew shipped away, not to be heard from again. The remaining ten men spent most of a year on Palmyra, living on dwindling stores and local food. They spent three months building a small escape boat, upon which six men left Palmyra. Of these, four were washed overboard in a storm, and the other two were rescued by an American [[whaler]] bound for [[San Francisco]]. One died en route. The survivor, James Hines, was put in a hospital, but he died 30 days later.

Before Hines died, he wrote letters describing the affair and the location of the treasure, which originally included 1.5 million Spanish gold pesos and an equal value in silver (possibly consisting of [[Pre-Columbian era|precolumbian]] artworks). Around 1903, over 95 years later, the letters were allegedly deposited for safekeeping with Capt. William R. Foster, the [[harbormaster]] of [[Honolulu]], by a sailor who was bound for the [[Solomon Islands]] but never returned. After holding the letters for 20 years in an iron chest, Foster revealed them to a reporter, who published the details.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/75|title=Priceless Treasures of the Incas May Be Buried on Island in Palmyras|last=Connor|first=Martin|date=April 14, 1923|work=Honolulu Star-Bulletin|access-date=August 14, 2017|location=Honolulu|page=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814140953/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/75|archive-date=August 14, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> A conflicting variant of the story was published by Capt. F. D. Walker of Honolulu in 1903<ref>{{cite news|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/78|title=Honolulu Man Knows Where Much Silver has been Buried|last=Walker|first=Capt. F. D.|date=July 6, 1903|work=Daily Pacific Commercial Advertiser|access-date=August 14, 2017|location=Honolulu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814144449/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/78|archive-date=August 14, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> and in 1914.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/60|title=Pirates' Buried Bullion May Be Found on Palmyra|last=Walker|first=Capt. F. D.|date=1914|work=New York Sun|access-date=August 14, 2017|location=New York|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170814145020/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/60|archive-date=August 14, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 1997, William A. Warren filed a federal salvage claim for a ship sunk off the atoll that he claimed had treasure from the ''Esperanza'', but he abandoned his claim after legal objection from the Fullard-Leos, who owned most of Palmyra.<ref name="treasurecase" />

The legend of the ''Esperanza'' and ''Santa Rosa'' (a ship rumored to have recovered the ''Esperanza'' treasure and sailed back to Honolulu) inspired a [[Jack London]] story called "The Proud Goat of Aloysius Pankburn", which was published as part of London's David Grief stories in the ''[[Saturday Evening Post]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/124|title=The Proud Goat of Aloysius Pankburn|last=London|first=Jack|date=June 24, 1911|work=Saturday Evening Post|access-date=August 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811012500/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/124|archive-date=August 11, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/122|title=Judge Cooper Off for Pirates' Treasure Isle of Palmyra|date=June 29, 1911|work=Honolulu Star Advertiser|access-date=August 14, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811012436/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/122|archive-date=August 11, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== American visits ===
[[File:Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, Pacific Islands (6109853163).jpg|thumb|A coconut crab on Palmyra]]
The atoll was visited by the {{USS|Porpoise|1836|6}} in 1842 as part of the [[United States Exploring Expedition]], led by [[Charles Wilkes]]. This marked the first visit to Palmyra by a scientific expedition. Various live samples of native plants and animals were collected. In his 23rd volume recording the findings of the [[United States Exploring Expedition|USXX]] (United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842), Wilkes wrote of Palmyra, mentioning some unspecified inhabitants at that time:

<blockquote>This island is inhabited&nbsp;... It is to be regretted that all these detached islands should not be visited by our national vessels, and friendly intercourse kept up with them. The benefit and assistance that any shipwrecked mariners might derive from their rude inhabitants, would repay the time, trouble, and expense such visits would occasion.<ref>{{cite news|title=United States Exploring Expedition Vol XXIII: Hydrography|date=1842|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/58|access-date=2016-12-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224032841/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/58|archive-date=2016-12-24|url-status=dead}}</ref></blockquote>

In 1859, Palmyra Atoll was claimed for the United States both by Alfred Benson and by Dr. [[Gerrit P. Judd]] of the brig ''Josephine'', under the [[Guano Islands Act]] of 1856, but no [[guano]] was there to be mined, so the claims were abandoned.<ref>Rauzon, Mark J. (2016). ''Isles of Amnesia: The History, Geography, and Restoration of America's Forgotten Pacific Islands''. University of Hawai'i Press, Latitude 20. Page 88. {{ISBN|9780824846794}}.</ref>

=== Annexation by the Kingdom of Hawaii (1862) ===
On February 26, 1862, King [[Kamehameha IV]] of [[Kingdom of Hawaii|Hawaii]] commissioned Captain Zenas Bent and Johnson Beswick Wilkinson, both Hawaiian citizens, to take possession of the atoll. On April 15, 1862, it was formally annexed to the Kingdom of Hawaii, while Bent and Wilkinson became joint owners.<ref name="DOI OIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.doi.gov/oia/islands/palmyraatoll |title=Palmyra Atoll |website=Department of the Interior, Office of Insular Affairs |access-date=2025-01-20}}</ref>

Over the next century, ownership passed through various hands. Bent sold his rights to Wilkinson on December 25, 1862. Palmyra later passed to Kalama Wilkinson (Johnson's widow). In 1885, it was divided among her four heirs,<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Estate of Kalama |reporter=Probate |court=Circuit Court, Honolulu |date=1878–1885}}</ref> two of whom sold their rights to William Luther Wilcox who, in turn, sold them to the Pacific Navigation Company. In 1897, this company was liquidated, and its interests were sold first to [[William Ansel Kinney]] and then to Fred Wundenberg, all residents of Honolulu.<ref name="Evening Bulletin">{{Cite news|title=Palmyra Island|newspaper=The Evening Bulletin|location=Honolulu|date=August 14, 1897|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82016413/1897-08-14/ed-1/seq-5/;words=Palmyra|access-date=August 20, 2010}}</ref>

A further Wilkinson heir left her share to her son William Ringer Sr., who also bought his great-uncle's share, giving Ringer a one-third undivided share as a [[tenant in common]].<ref name="cooper">{{cite news|title=Contest Cooper's Claim to Palmyra|newspaper=The Hawaiian Gazette|location=Honolulu|date=May 3, 1912|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025121/1912-05-03/ed-1/seq-1/|access-date=August 20, 2010}}</ref>

Separately, in 1889, Commander Nichols of {{HMS|Cormorant|1877|6}} claimed Palmyra for the [[United Kingdom]], unaware of Hawaii's prior claim.<ref>{{cite news|title=Has Prior Claim: Palmyra Claimed by Kamehameha|newspaper=The Hawaiian Gazette|location=Honolulu|date=August 13, 1897|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025121/1897-08-13/ed-1/seq-4/;words=Palmyra|access-date=August 20, 2010}}</ref>

=== Part of the U.S. Territory of Hawaii (1900–1959) ===
[[File:Tallest Pisonia grandis on Palmyra with H E Cooper.jpg|thumb|upright|Tallest ''[[Pisonia grandis]]'' tree at Palmyra, with [[Henry E. Cooper]] in 1913]]
In 1898, the United States by the [[Newlands Resolution]] annexed the [[Republic of Hawaii]], formerly the [[Provisional Government of Hawaii]], and Palmyra with it. An Act of Congress made all of Hawaii, including Palmyra, into an "incorporated territory" of the United States. (''Act'' of April 30, 1900, ch. 339, §§ 4–5.) On June 14, 1900, Palmyra became part of the new U.S. [[Territory of Hawaii]].<ref name="DOI OIA"/>

With the imminent opening of the [[Panama Canal]], Palmyra became strategically important. Britain had established a [[submarine communications cable|submarine cable]] station for the [[All Red Line]] on nearby [[Tabuaeran|Fanning Island]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Palmyra Title May Now be Tested: Sale of Fanning Brings the Little Hawaiian-Owned Group into Prominence|newspaper=The Hawaiian Gazette|location=Honolulu|date=January 16, 1912|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83025121/1912-01-16/ed-1/seq-2/|access-date=August 20, 2010}}</ref> The [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] sent {{USS|West Virginia|ACR-5|6}} to Palmyra, where on February 21, 1912, American sovereignty was formally reaffirmed.<ref name="DOI OIA"/>

William Ringer Sr. died in 1909, survived by his wife and three minor daughters. 

On June 12, 1911, Wundenberg's widow sold his two-thirds undivided interest in Palmyra as a [[tenant in common]] to Judge [[Henry Ernest Cooper]] (1857–1929).<ref name="usvfull-dist">{{cite court |litigants=United States v. Fullard Leo et al.|reporter=66 F.Supp. |opinion =774|date=1940 |url=https://www.leagle.com/decision/194084066fsupp7741626 |access-date=March 28, 2018}}</ref>

In 1912, Cooper bought the Ringer daughters' inherited rights from their legal guardian, and petitioned to register [[Torrens title]] to all of Palmyra for himself. After a legal challenge, Cooper's ownership of the atoll was held by the [[Supreme Court of Hawaii]] to be subject to rights sold by Ringer's widow to Henry Maui and Joseph Clarke. Maui's and Clarke's interests, per the [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] in 1947, had been divided, with one-third going to Bella Jones of Honolulu in 1912,<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Application No. 223 of Henry E. Cooper |reporter=Document No. 468, Hawaii Court of Land Registration |date=1912}}</ref> and the rest passing to their heirs.<ref name="cooper"/>
[[File:'Palmyra' by D. Howard Hitchcock, 1923.jpg|thumb|[[D. Howard Hitchcock]]'s 1923 painting ''Palmyra'']]

Cooper visited the island in July 1913 with scientists [[Charles Montague Cooke Jr.]] and [[Joseph F. Rock]], who wrote a scientific description of the atoll. Botanist Rock discovered unusual [[coconut palm]]s in 1913, which palms expert [[Odoardo Beccari]] identified as ''[[Cocos nucifera]] palmyrensis'' (Becc.), the [[coconut]] type with the largest, longest and most triangular (in cross-section) fruits in the world, existing only at Palmyra. (The closest ''[[Cocos nucifera]]'' relative occurs only in the distant [[Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Indian Ocean]].)<ref name="rock">{{cite news|title=Palmyra Island with a Description of its Flora|author=Joseph F. Rock|date=April 1916|work=Bulletin Number 4|publisher=College of Hawaii|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=8jtEAAAAYAAJ|page=57}}|author-link=Joseph F. Rock}}</ref> The "mammoth coconuts" were put on display in Honolulu in 1914 along with paintings of Palmyra by Hawaiian artist [[D. Howard Hitchcock]],<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Honolulu Star-Bulletin|location=Honolulu|date=May 28, 1914|page=4|title=Personal Mention|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014682/1914-05-28/ed-1/seq-4/|access-date=April 27, 2017}}</ref> who had accompanied Cooper to the island.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=Honolulu Star-Bulletin|location=Honolulu|date=April 23, 1914|page=4|title=Judge Cooper Is Enthusiastic; In Regard Palmyra|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82014682/1914-04-23/ed-1/seq-4/|access-date=April 28, 2017}}</ref>

In September 1921, as part of a national push to better document the coastal and outlying areas owned by the United States, a small naval detachment was sent to Palmyra to conduct the first aerial surveys of the atoll. The events of that trip were recorded by a naval [[Pharmacist Mate]], M. L. Steele, who wrote:

<blockquote>During our visit the weather was delightful. The detachment remained at these islands two days and they were perfect for flying, affording an opportunity to take wonderful aerial pictures. The commanding officer and the aviators made a number of flights and the official photographer was in his element.</blockquote>

At the time, Palmyra was occupied by three Americans: Colonel William Meng, his wife, and Edwin Benner Jr.<ref>Morris, Penrose Clibborn (1933). "How the Territory of Hawaii Grew and What Domain It Covers," ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10524/70 Forty-Second Annual Report of the Hawaiian Historical Society for the Year 1933]'', p. 25. Retrieved November 27, 2020.</ref> While there, the USS ''[[Eagle-class patrol craft|Eagle Boat]] 40'', which had transported aircraft and photographic equipment to the islands, made a very rare exception to naval regulation and took aboard the wife, Mrs. Meng, to return her to Honolulu for medical aid, as she was not handling the isolation and trying physical conditions of Palmyra well.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Palmyra Islands|publisher=Hospital Corps Quarterly|author=M.L. Steele|date=January 1922|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/71|access-date=2017-01-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202082936/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/71|archive-date=2017-02-02|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On August 19, 1922, Cooper sold his interest in the atoll, except for two minor islets, to Leslie and Ellen Fullard-Leo for $15,000 ({{Inflation|US|15000|1922|fmt=eq}}). They established the Palmyra Copra Company to harvest the [[coconut]]s growing on the atoll. Their three sons, including actor [[Leslie Vincent]], continued as the owners afterward, subject to a period of military administration and construction by the Navy before and during [[World War II]] from 1939 through 1945. In 2000, [[The Nature Conservancy]] acquired the majority of Palmyra Atoll from the Fullard-Leo family for $30 million ({{Inflation|US|30000000|2000|fmt=eq}}).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/hawaii/palmyraatoll/explore/the-nature-conservancy-in-palmyra-atoll-history.xml |title=Palmyra: A Colorful History |publisher=The Nature Conservancy |access-date=August 14, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823114921/https://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/hawaii/palmyraatoll/explore/the-nature-conservancy-in-palmyra-atoll-history.xml |archive-date=2017-08-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== U.S. Navy base and post-war (1939–1959) ===
[[File:Palmyra Island - NARA - 68155417.jpg|thumb|left|WW2 era photo looking across the atoll]]
Palmyra was turned into a military base in the Pacific at the start of World War Two after some legal questions were resolved. The island was fortified when it found itself on the front lines of the Pacific due to the losses of U.S. territories to the west. It was shelled once early in the war, but due to U.S. military success, it was later used for refueling and training. After WW2, it was returned to private ownership, and the naval base was mostly demolished.[[File:Grumman JRF Goose is hoisted aboard USS Long Island (ACV-1) off Palmyra Island, 19 April 1943 (80-G-66769).jpg|thumb|upright|Grumman JRF Goose is hoisted aboard USS Long Island (ACV-1) off Palmyra Island, 19 April 1943]]

====Background====
Several memoirs, reports, and unofficial documents in the decades since World War II have stated Palmyra was placed under naval jurisdiction in 1934 as part of [[Executive order (United States)|Executive Order]] 6935.<ref>{{cite web| title=Executive Order 6935 |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Executive_Order_6935|publisher=U.S. Government |date=December 29, 1934}}</ref> However, Palmyra is not mentioned in this order in any capacity. The first official mention of Palmyra under Naval Jurisdiction comes from a 1939 letter from the [[Homer Stille Cummings|U.S. Attorney General]], mentioned in a 1997 Insular Areas report, concluding "Palmyra was U.S. public land and that the Fullard-Leo claim was invalid. S. Rep. No. 83-886 at 37."<ref>{{cite web |title=US Insular Areas Report |url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/144 |publisher=U.S. Government |date=November 1, 1997 |access-date=August 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821090629/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/144 |archive-date=August 21, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Soon after this determination, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] issued [[Executive Order]] 8616, officially, "Placing Palmyra Island, Territory of Hawaii, Under the Control and Jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Navy".<ref>{{cite web |title=Executive Order 8616 |url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/139 |publisher=U.S. Government |date=December 19, 1940 |access-date=August 21, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170821084422/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/139 |archive-date=August 21, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Starting in 1937, the Fullard-Leo family began attempts to lease Palmyra to the U.S. Navy. During negotiations, the government filed a [[quiet title]] action against the Fullard-Leos and [[Henry Ernest Cooper]]'s six surviving children, claiming property at Palmyra had never been privately owned under the Kingdom of Hawaii or later. The case reached the U.S. Supreme Court. The Insular Areas report states, "While the suit was pending during World War II, the Navy occupied Palmyra and built a runway and several buildings." The Fullard-Leos and Coopers finally won their case in ''United States v. Fullard-Leo et al.'', 331 U.S. 256 (1947), which quieted good land title against the federal government in favor of private landowners. The opinion acknowledged certain of Henry Maui's and Joseph Clarke's interests (331 U.S. 256 at 278) but their heirs and their successor Mrs. Bella Jones were not made parties to the case.<ref>{{cite web|title = GAO/OGC-98-5 – U.S. Insular Areas: Application of the U.S. Constitution | date = November 7, 1997|url= http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/GAOREPORTS-OGC-98-5/content-detail.html|publisher= U.S. Government Printing Office |access-date=March 23, 2013}}</ref> {{As of|2007}}, descendants of Henry Cooper still owned two small Home islets in the southwestern tip that were not sold in 1922.<ref name="DOI OIA"/>

In July 1938, [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] [[Harold L. Ickes]] wrote a letter to [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]], imploring him not to turn Palmyra over to the U.S. Navy for use as a military base. Quoting his letter, he writes,

<blockquote>...&nbsp;the Navy Department has plans for the acquisition and development of the island as an air base. Our representatives have studied conditions at Palmyra and other islands in the south Pacific, and they report that use of this small land area as an air base for Navy Department purposes would undoubtedly destroy much, if not all, that makes the island one of our most scientifically and scenically unique possessions.</blockquote>

The letter was unsuccessful, and plans for the base proceeded.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/192 |title=MEMORANDUM FOR THE PRESIDENT REGARDING PALMYRA ISLAND |last1=Ickes |first1=Harold |date=July 11, 1938 |publisher=Office of the Secretary of the Interior |access-date=December 9, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209152158/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/192 |archive-date=December 9, 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On February 14, 1941, Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8682 to create naval defenses areas in the central Pacific territories. The proclamation established the "Palmyra Island Naval Defensive Sea Area", encompassing the territorial waters between the extreme high-water marks and the three-mile marine boundaries surrounding the atoll. "Palmyra Island Naval Airspace Reservation" was also established to restrict access to airspace in the area. Only U.S. government ships and aircraft were permitted to enter the naval defense areas at Palmyra Atoll unless authorized by the [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]].
The Navy took over the atoll for use as the [[Palmyra Atoll Airfield|Palmyra Island Naval Air Station]] on August 15, 1941. From November 1939 through 1947, the atoll had resident federal government representatives and island commanders. The atoll was [[Shelling of Johnston and Palmyra|shelled by a Japanese submarine]] in 1941, with no significant damage or injuries. The government made extensive alterations to the landforms. It blasted and dredged a ship channel from the open sea into the West Lagoon, which had been completely enclosed by islands and reefs and was non-navigable until the channel reached the lagoon on May 15, 1941. It joined islands with causeway roads, built new islands, and extended existing islands with dredged coral spoil, including the main runway on Cooper Island, an emergency landing strip called Sand Island joined by a causeway to Home Island and two artificial runway islands that were not completed. These alterations blocked the water flow through the atoll and are believed to have severely harmed the natural ecology of the lagoons.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Shoreline Changes and Sediment Redistribution at Palmyra Atoll (Equatorial Pacific Ocean): 1874–Present |last1=Collen |first1=J. D. |last2=Garton |first2=D. W. |last3=Gardner |first3=J. P. A. |date=2000 |journal=Journal of Coastal Research |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=711–722 |doi=10.2112/08-1007.1 |s2cid=129960273 }}</ref>

====Pacific war====
[[File:The Pacific Battlefield, 1941.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|In December 1941, Palmyra found itself on the front lines of the Pacific War]]
In December 1941, the Empire of Japan declared war on the United States and Great Britain. It launched attacks and invasions across Asia and the Pacific, plunging the United States into [[World War II]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chapter 1: The Japanese Offensive in the Pacific |url=https://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch01.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918042521/http://www.history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch01.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 18, 2008 |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=www.history. Army.mil}}</ref> In that context, the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] submarine ''[[Japanese submarine I-175|I-75]]'' bombarded the naval air station on December 24, 1941.<ref name=ijnsubsiteI175>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ijnsubsite.info/I-Sub%20Details/I-175.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316155404/http://www.ijnsubsite.info/I-Sub%20Details/I-175.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=March 16, 2016|title=I_175}}</ref><ref name=combinedfleetI175>{{cite web |url= http://www.combinedfleet.com/I-175.htm |title=IJN Submarine I-175: Tabular Record of Movement |first1=Bob |last1=Hackett |first2=Sander |last2=Kingsepp |work=combinedfleet.com |date=12 June 2010|access-date=6 May 2022}}</ref> Opening fire at 04:55 Greenwich [[Civil time|Civil Time]], the submarine fired twelve {{convert|120|mm|in|1|adj=on|sp=us}} rounds from the [[deck gun]], targeting the atoll's radio station, and hit the United States Army [[United States Army Corps of Engineers|Corps of Engineers]] [[dredge]] ''Sacramento'', which was [[anchor]]ed in the lagoon, with one shell.<ref name=combinedfleetI175/> A {{convert|5|in|mm|sigfig=3|adj=on}} [[coastal artillery]] [[Artillery battery|battery]] on the atoll returned fire, forcing ''I-75'' to submerge and withdraw.<ref name=combinedfleetI175/>

Although the U.S. lost control of the [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|Philippines]], [[Battle of Guam (1941)|Guam]], and [[Battle of Wake Island|Wake]], early in the war, the tide of the Pacific battle was slowly turned with such battles as the [[Battle of Midway]] and [[Guadalcanal campaign|Guadalcanal]]. By 1944, much of the Southwest Pacific was in Allied control, and a combination of island hopping and strategic bombing led to the Japanese surrender in 1945.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Pacific Strategy, 1941-1944 |url=https://www.nationalww2museum.org/war/articles/pacific-strategy-1941-1944 |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=The National WWII Museum {{!}} New Orleans |language=en}}</ref> During the war Palmyra base was used by the Navy for training and refueling.<ref>{{Cite web |title=US Navy facilities Palmyra Atoll 1944 - ScienceBase-Catalog |url=https://www.sciencebase.gov/catalog/item/5925b294e4b0b7ff9fb3ca35 |access-date=2023-12-03 |website=www.sciencebase.gov |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0"/> The atoll was extensively developed which reduced the numbers of islets from 52 to 25.<ref name=":0"/>

In the lobby of the "Transient Hotel" (built by the [[Seabees]], and used by airmen on their way to the [[Pacific Ocean theater of World War II|Pacific Theater]] front), a mural was hung depicting a quiet island scene. It was painted by [[Academy Award]]-nominated [[art director]] [[William Glasgow (art director)|William Glasgow]], who served in the Army from 1943 to 1945. However, it is unclear when he painted it and how it ended up on Palmyra.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/145|encyclopedia=76th Naval Construction Battalion Yearbook|year=1945|access-date=August 28, 2017|via=Palmyra Archive|page=4|author=76th Navy CMBU|title=Palmyra Island|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170828192256/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/145|archive-date=August 28, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1947, the base was returned to private ownership after a court case with the Federal government.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2018-12-18 |title=Discovering Palmyra: Westfield man creates archive on Pacific atoll, to visit for first time next month • Current Publishing |url=https://youarecurrent.com/2018/12/18/discovering-palmyra-westfield-man-creates-archive-on-pacific-atoll-to-visit-for-first-time-next-month/ |access-date=2023-12-03 |language=en-US}}</ref>

After World War II, much of the Naval Air Station was demolished, with some of the materials piled up and burned on the atoll, dumped into the lagoon, or, in the case of unexploded ordnance on some islets, left in place.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cerc.usgs.gov/Projects.aspx?ProjectId=98 |title=Palmyra Atoll: WWII Naval Air Station Contaminant Impacts on Terrestrial and Marine Ecosystems within the USFWS National Wildlife Refuge |website=www.cerc.usgs.gov |publisher=[[U.S. Geological Survey]] |access-date=August 14, 2017}}</ref> Compared to other bases little is known about the operations at Palmyra during WW2. However, it is known that the island was extensively modified.<ref name=":0" />{{further|Shelling of Johnston and Palmyra}}

=== U.S. Territory of Palmyra Island (1959–present) ===
[[File:Palmyra Atoll NWR aerial FWS.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Palmyra Atoll viewed from the northwest, 2011]]

When Hawaii was admitted to the United States in 1959, Palmyra was explicitly separated from the new state,<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Little Palmyra Atoll Isn't Celebrating |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1870&dat=19590314&id=s5woAAAAIBAJ&pg=949,2258686&hl=en |newspaper=Daytona Beach Morning Journal |location=Daytona Beach |date=March 14, 1959 |access-date=2015-09-29 }}</ref> remaining a federal [[incorporated territory]], to be administered by the secretary of the interior<ref name="DOI OIA"/> under a presidential [[Executive order (United States)|executive order]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Administration of Palmyra Island|series=Executive Order No. 10967 (text)|date=October 10, 1961|url=http://www.palmyraarchive.org/items/show/143|access-date=March 31, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401003845/http://www.palmyraarchive.org/items/show/143|archive-date=April 1, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:UAS target site (DSC00365).jpg|thumb|A USGS employee does survey work at Palmyra in 2016.]]
[[File:Palmyra Atoll wildlife (DSC00376).jpg|thumb|Wildlife at Palmyra]]
[[File:Line5304 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library.jpg|thumb|Islet of Palmyra]]

In 1962, the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] used Palmyra as an observation site during several high-altitude [[nuclear weapon]]s tests high above [[Johnston Atoll]]. A group of about ten men supported the observation posts during this series of tests, while about 40 people carried out the observations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/40|title=6th Weather Squadron During Project Dominic|date=1962|publisher=Palmyra Atoll Digital Archive|access-date=July 3, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401003845/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/40|archive-date=April 1, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

[[Alby Mangels]], the Australian adventurer and documentary filmmaker of ''[[World Safari]]'', visited the atoll during his six-year trip in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLiiyzc0_S0 |title=Alby Mangels World Safari visits the Palmyra Atoll |date=February 8, 2017 |publisher=Palmyra Atoll Digital Archive |access-date=9 June 2022}}</ref>

In early 1979, the U.S. government began exploring the idea of storing [[nuclear waste]] on remote Pacific islands like Palmyra. Those who knew the island and the region saw no benefit to this idea, commenting on the devastating effects a leak of these storage tanks would create.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/53|title=Palmyra Pushed into the Nuclear Age|newspaper=The Honolulu Advertiser|date=1979|access-date=2016-12-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224102017/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/53|archive-date=2016-12-24|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1982 a formal proposal had been written which "analyzes the proposal to store spent nuclear fuel on Palmyra Island, a US territory nearly a thousand miles south of [[Hawaii]]. The proposal has military, political, social, and technical implications."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/29|title=National Policy Implications of Storing Nuclear Waste in the Pacific Region|publisher=National Defense University|date=March 12, 1982|access-date=December 24, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161224101520/http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/29|archive-date=December 24, 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> The idea was abandoned soon after the proposal, and no such storage facilities were built.

==== ''Sea Wind'' murder ====
In 1974, Palmyra was the site of a murder, and possible double murder, of a wealthy San Diego couple, Malcolm "Mac" Graham and his wife, Eleanor "Muff" Graham.<ref name="scott">{{cite news |url=http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/oceanwatch/20100614_Palmyras_scads_of_rats_rival_its_crabs_and_birds.html |title=Palmyra's scads of rats rival its crabs and birds |last=Scott |first=Susan |date=2010-06-14 |work=Honolulu Star Advertiser |access-date=2017-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222220347/http://www.staradvertiser.com/news/oceanwatch/20100614_Palmyras_scads_of_rats_rival_its_crabs_and_birds.html |archive-date=2015-02-22 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> The mysterious deaths, including the murder conviction of Duane ("Buck") Walker (a.k.a. Wesley G. Walker) for Eleanor Graham's murder, and the acquittal of his girlfriend, Stephanie Stearns, made headlines worldwide, and became the subject of a [[true crime]] book, ''[[And the Sea Will Tell]]'', written by [[Bruce Henderson (author)|Bruce Henderson]] and [[Vincent Bugliosi]], Stearns's defense attorney. The book led to a CBS television miniseries of the same name, starring [[James Brolin]], [[Rachel Ward]], [[Deidre Hall]], and [[Hart Bochner]]; [[Richard Crenna]] played lawyer [[Vincent Bugliosi|Bugliosi]]. The story was retold in ''[[The FBI Files]]''.

Walker and Stearns were arrested in Honolulu in 1974 after returning from Palmyra aboard ''Sea Wind'', the yacht stolen from the Grahams. Because no bodies were found at the time, Walker and Stearns were convicted only for the theft of the yacht. Six years later, a partially-buried, corroded chest was found in a lagoon at Palmyra, containing Eleanor Graham's remains. Walker and Stearns were arrested in Arizona for murder, and Walker was convicted in 1985. Stearns was acquitted in 1986 after her defense argued that Walker had committed the murders without Stearns's knowledge. Because no body or other evidence of Malcolm Graham's death has been discovered, his murder was never formally alleged.

Walker served 22&nbsp;years in the [[United States Penitentiary, Victorville]], California, before receiving parole in 2007. He wrote an 895-page book about his experiences and life on Palmyra Island, in which he denied killing Eleanor Graham. It states they had sexual relations; her husband Malcolm Graham caught them and shot at them in anger, inadvertently killing her. Walker said that the two men had a gunfight the next day and that Malcolm Graham consequently died from a rifle wound.

Walker accused author Vincent Bugliosi – Stearns' lawyer – of [[vainglory]] and exploiting [[class prejudice]] against him and wrote that his lawyer, Earle Partington, was incompetent. Walker did not implicate Stearns in any killing.<ref>{{cite book |title=Palmyra: the True Story of an Island Tragedy |last=Walker |first=Wesley |date=2007 |publisher=B. & E. Press |location=Incline Village, Nevada}}</ref> Walker died in a nursing home following a stroke on April 26, 2010.<ref name="scott"/>
[[File:Palmyra AKK World Discoverer.jpg|thumb|The ship [[MS World Discoverer]] at Palmyra]]

==== Sovereignty challenges (1997–1999) ====
In the late 1990s, Rachel Lahela Kekoa Bolt, a [[native Hawaiian]] heir of Henry Maui, and some of her descendants filed federal lawsuits claiming her inherited interest in Palmyra and challenging the legality of the [[Newlands Resolution]] that annexed Hawaii. The lawsuits [[Hawaiian sovereignty movement|challenged American sovereignty]] over both the State of Hawaii and the United States Territory of Palmyra Island.<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Painter et al. v. United States et al. |reporter=Case No. CV96-00685HG |court=D.C. Hawaii |date=1998}}</ref><ref>{{cite court |litigants=Painter v. United States et al. |reporter=Case No. 1:98 CV-01737 |court=D.C. Dist.Col. |date=1999}}</ref> On similar grounds, they [[Intervention (law)|intervened]] in a federal [[marine salvage]] claim for a sunken [[treasure]] ship at Palmyra.<ref name=treasurecase>{{cite court |litigants=William A. Warren v. Unidentified Wrecked Vessel |url=http://palmyraarchive.org/items/show/131|reporter=Case No. CV96-00018SPK |court=D.C. Hawaii |date=1998}}</ref> The cases were dismissed on procedural grounds before trial.

==== National Wildlife Refuge and National Monument ====
[[File:Corl0251 (28226001911).jpg|thumb|[[Humbug dascyllus]] swim among Palmyra corals]]
[[File:Red-footed Booby (5896652469).jpg|thumb|[[Red-footed Booby]] seabird on Palmyra]]
In December 2000, [[The Nature Conservancy]] (TNC) bought most of Palmyra Atoll from the three Fullard-Leo brothers<ref name="DOI OIA"/> for [[coral reef]] [[conservation biology|conservation]] and research. In 2003, a scientific study was published about fossilized coral washing up on Palmyra. This fossilized coral was examined for evidence of the behavior of the effect of [[El Niño]] on the tropical [[Pacific Ocean]] over the past 1,000 years.<ref>K. M. Cobb et al., El Niño/Southern Oscillation and Tropic Pacific Climate During the Last Millennium, ''Nature'', Vol. 424, July 17, 2003</ref> The atoll was purchased for 30 million USD; however, certain areas were later purchased by the United States government.<ref name="nature.com">{{cite web | url=https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-023-01932-y/index.html | title=Invasive palms and WWII damaged an island paradise. Could fungi help to restore it? }}</ref> TNC, [[Island Conservation]], and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service manage the island, which is used for research. Major programs have been to eliminate rats and invasive palms.<ref name="nature.com"/> One of the challenges has been understanding how the rich peaty soil that can be found on the island developed on the coral, and one of the overall goals is to maintain biodiversity globally in locations similar to Palmyra.<ref>[https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-023-01932-y/index.html Nature June 2023 Lost world Invasive palms and WWII damaged an island paradise. Could fungi help to restore it? by Virginia Gewin]</ref>

[[File:Green turtle Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chelonia mydas|Green sea turtle]] at Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge]]
On January 18, 2001, Secretary of the Interior [[Bruce Babbitt]] issued Secretary's Order No. 3224 designating Palmyra's tidal lands, submerged lands and surrounding waters out to {{convert|12|nmi|km}} from the water's edge as a National Wildlife Refuge.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.doi.gov/oia/islands/palmyraatoll |title=Palmyra Atoll |website=U.S. Department of Interior |access-date=August 5, 2024 }}</ref> Subsequently, the Department of the Interior published a regulation providing for the management of the refuge. 66 Fed. Reg. 7660-01 (January 24, 2001). The pertinent part of the regulation states:

<blockquote>We will close the refuge to [[commercial fishing]] but will permit a low level of compatible recreational fishing for bonefishing and deep water sportfishing under programs that we will carefully manage to ensure compatibility with refuge purposes.&nbsp;... Management actions will include protection of the refuge waters and wildlife from commercial fishing activities.</blockquote>

In March 2003, TNC conveyed {{convert|416|acre|km2}} of the emergent land of Palmyra to the United States to be included in the refuge. In 2005, it added 28 acres to the conveyance. TNC and [[Henry Ernest Cooper]]'s descendants kept their remaining private land tracts.

[[File:Coral reef at palmyra.jpg|thumb|Coral reef at Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge]]
The conveyance to TNC from the Fullard-Leos in 2000 was subject to a preexisting commercial fishing license. Then, in 2001, the [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] banned [[commercial fishing]] near Palmyra but allowed [[sport fishing]], as quoted above. In January 2007, the commercial fishing licensees sued the United States in the [[Court of Federal Claims]] alleging that, under the [[Takings Clause#Eminent domain|Takings Clause]], the Interior Department regulation had "directly confiscated, taken, and rendered wholly and completely worthless" their purported property interests. The United States moved to dismiss the lawsuit, and the court granted the motion.<ref>{{Cite court |litigants = Palmyra Pacific Seafoods, L.L.C. v. United States |vol = 80 |reporter = Fed. Cl. |opinion = 228 |court = U.S. Court of Federal Claims |year = 2008 |url= http://www.uscfc.uscourts.gov/sites/default/files/CMILLER.PALMYRA012208.pdf}}</ref> On April 9, 2009, the court's decision was affirmed by the [[Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit]].<ref>{{Cite court |litigants = Palmyra Pacific Seafoods, L.L.C. v. United States |vol = 561 |reporter = F.3d |opinion = 1361 |court = Fed. Cir. |year = 2009 |url= http://www.cafc.uscourts.gov/images/stories/opinions-orders/08-5058.pdf}}</ref>

In November 2005, TNC established a new research station on Palmyra to study [[global warming]], coral reefs, [[invasive species]], and other environmental concerns.<ref>{{cite web|title=Opening of The Nature Conservancy Research Station on Palmyra Atoll|publisher=Hawai'i Post|url=http://www.hawaii-post.com/2005-01DEC.html|access-date=August 20, 2010}}</ref>

The Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument, comprising Palmyra Atoll, [[Baker Island]], [[Howland Island]], [[Jarvis Island]], [[Johnston Atoll]], and [[Kingman Reef]], was established on January 6, 2009, by proclamation of President [[George W. Bush]]. This [[National Monument|national monument]] extends {{convert|50|nmi|km|abbr=off|sp=us}} offshore and is managed by the [[U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service]]<ref name="monument">{{cite web|url=http://www.fws.gov/pacificremoteislandsmarinemonument/|title=Pacific Remote Islands Marine National Monument|work=fws.gov|publisher=U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service|access-date=July 31, 2009|archive-date=March 24, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324062622/http://www.fws.gov/pacificremoteislandsmarinemonument/|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=U.S. Department of Commerce|first=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|title=Discovering the Deep: Exploring Remote Pacific MPAs: Background: Conservation and Research Initiatives at Palmyra Atoll and Kingman Reef: NOAA Office of Ocean Exploration and Research|url=https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/explorations/ex1705/background/palmyra/welcome.html|access-date=2021-12-31|website=oceanexplorer.noaa.gov|language=EN-US}}</ref> In 2025, this was renamed [[Pacific Islands Heritage Marine National Monument]].