Editing Paganism (section)

== History ==
=== Prehistoric ===
*[[Prehistoric religion]]
**[[Paleolithic religion]]

==== Bronze Age to Early Iron Age ====
* [[Religions of the ancient Near East]]
** [[Ancient Egyptian religion]]
** [[Ancient Semitic religion]]
** [[Ancient Iranian religion]]
** [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion]]

[[File:Die Gartenlaube (1887) b 016.jpg|thumb|Depiction from 1887 showing two Roman women offering a [[sacrifice]] to the [[List of deities|goddess]] [[Vesta (mythology)|Vesta]]]]

=== Ancient history ===
==== Classical antiquity ====
{{Main|Ancient Greek religion|Ancient Roman religion|Hellenistic religion|Roman imperial cult}}
[[Ludwig Feuerbach]] defined the paganism of [[classical antiquity]], which he termed {{lang|de|Heidentum}} ('heathenry') as "the unity of religion and politics, of spirit and nature, of god and man",<ref>cf. the civil, natural and mythical theologies of [[Marcus Terentius Varro]]</ref> qualified by the observation that man in the pagan view is always defined by [[ethnicity]], i.e., As a result, every pagan tradition is also a national tradition. Modern historians define paganism instead as the aggregate of cult acts, set within a civic rather than a national context, without a written creed or sense of [[orthodoxy]].<ref>A summary of the modern view is given in Robin Lane Fox, ''Pagans and Christians'' 1989, pp. 31 ''ff.'': "The modern emphasis on {{sic|hide=y|reason=Fox appears to have used "pagan", lower case, per external sources quoting him.|paganism}}'s cult acts was also acknowledged by {{sic|hide=y|pagans}} themselves. It shaped the way they tried and tested Christians."</ref>

==== Late Antiquity and Christianization ====
{{further|Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism|Hellenic philosophy and Christianity}}
The developments in the religious thought of the far-flung [[Roman Empire]] during [[Late Antiquity]] need to be addressed separately, because this is the context in which [[Early Christianity]] itself developed as one of several monotheistic cults, and it was in this period that the concept of ''pagan'' developed in the first place. As Christianity emerged from [[Second Temple Judaism]] and [[Hellenistic Judaism]], it stood in competition with other religions advocating pagan monotheism, including the cults of [[Dionysus]],<ref>E. Kessler, ''Dionysian Monotheism in Nea Paphos, Cyprus''
"two monotheistic religions, Dionysian and Christian, existed contemporaneously in Nea Paphos during the 4th century C.E. [...] the particular iconography of Hermes and Dionysos in the panel of the Epiphany of Dionysos [...] represents the culmination of a {{sic|hide=y|reason=Kessler capitalized; verified with source.|Pagan}} iconographic tradition in which an infant divinity is seated on the lap of another divine figure; this {{sic|hide=y|Pagan}} motif was appropriated by early Christian artists and developed into the standardized icon of the Virgin and Child. Thus the mosaic helps to substantiate the existence of {{sic|hide=y|Pagan}} monotheism." [https://books.google.com/books?id=y1-hBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA91]</ref> [[Neoplatonism]], [[Mithraism]], [[Gnosticism]], and [[Manichaeanism]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} [[Dionysus]] in particular exhibits significant parallels with Christ, so that numerous scholars have concluded that the recasting of [[historical Jesus|Jesus the wandering rabbi]] into the image of [[Christ the Logos]], the divine saviour, reflects the cult of Dionysus directly. They point to the symbolism of wine and the importance it held in the mythology surrounding both Dionysus and Jesus Christ;<ref>[[Pausanias (geographer)|Pausanias]], ''Description of Greece'' 6. 26. 1–2</ref><ref>[[Athenaeus]], ''Deipnosophistae'' 2. 34a</ref> Wick argues that the use of wine [[religious symbolism|symbolism]] in the [[Gospel of John]], including the story of the [[Marriage at Cana]] at which Jesus turns water into wine, was intended to show Jesus as superior to Dionysus.<ref name="Wick 2004 179–198" /> The scene in ''The Bacchae'' wherein Dionysus appears before King Pentheus on charges of claiming divinity is compared to the New Testament scene of Jesus being interrogated by [[Pontius Pilate]].<ref name="Wick 2004 179–198">{{cite journal |last=Wick |first=Peter |title=Jesus gegen Dionysos? Ein Beitrag zur Kontextualisierung des Johannesevangeliums |journal=Biblica |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=179–98 |publisher=Pontifical Biblical Institute |location=Rome |year=2004 |url=http://www.bsw.org/?l=71851&a=Comm06.html |access-date=2007-10-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=0fLPOx1B-AwC&dq=%22dionysus+had+been+at+home+in+palestine+for+a+long+time%22&pg=PA331 Studies in Early Christology], by [[Martin Hengel]], 2005, p. 331 ({{ISBN|0567042804}})</ref><ref name=Powell>Powell, Barry B., ''Classical Myth'' Second ed. With new translations of ancient texts by Herbert M. Howe. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1998.</ref>

[[File:Gjama.jpg|thumb|Men of [[Theth]] ([[Shala (tribe)|Shala]]) practicing the [[gjâmë]] – the [[Albanians|Albanian]] lamentation of the dead – in 1937. The earliest figurative representations of this practice in traditional Albanian-inhabited regions appear on [[Dardani]]an funerary stelae of classical antiquity.{{sfn|Joseph|Dedvukaj|2024|pp=1–3}}]]
[[Proto-Albanian]] speakers were Christianized under the [[Latin]] sphere of influence, specifically in the 4th century CE, as shown by the basic [[Christianity|Christian]] terms in Albanian, which are of [[Latin]] origin and entered Proto-Albanian before the [[Gheg]]–[[Tosk]] dialectal diversification.{{sfn|Malcolm|1998|pp=36–38}}{{sfn|Fischer|Schmitt|2022|p=16}} Regardless of the Christianization, [[Albanian paganism|ancient paganism persisted among Albanians]], and especially within the inaccessible and deep interior{{sfn|Norris|1993|p=34}} – where [[Albanian folklore]] evolved over the centuries in a relatively isolated [[Albanian tribes|tribal culture and society]]{{sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=vii–viii}} – it has continued to persist, or at most it was partially transformed by the Christian, and later Muslim and Marxist beliefs, that were either to be introduced by choice or imposed by force.<ref>{{harvnb|Norris|1993|p=34}}; {{harvnb|Qafleshi|2011|pp=43–71}}; {{harvnb|Hykolli|Krasniqi|2020|p=78}}</ref> The Albanian traditional customary law ([[Kanun (Albania)|Kanun]]) has held a sacred – although secular – longstanding, unwavering and unchallenged authority with a cross-religious effectiveness over the Albanians, which is attributed to an earlier pagan code common to all the [[Albanian tribes]].{{sfn|Tarifa|2008|p=11}} Historically, the Christian clergy has vigorously fought, but without success, the [[Albanian paganism#Rituals and practices|pagan rituals]] practiced by Albanians for [[Albanian paganism#Traditional festivals|traditional feasts]] and particular events, especially the fire rituals ([[Zjarri (Albanian paganism)|Zjarri]]).{{sfn|Tirta|2004|p=250}}{{sfn|Qafleshi|2011|p=49}}

=== Postclassical history ===

Pagan Continuity in Mani and Mistra (800–1100) Christianity was introduced late in Mani, with the first Greek temples converted into churches during the 11th century. Byzantine monk [[Saint Nikon the Metanoeite|Nikon "the Metanoite"]] (Νίκων ὁ Μετανοείτε) was sent in the 10th century to convert the predominantly [[pagan]] Maniots. Although his preaching began the conversion process, it took over 200 years for the majority to accept Christianity fully by the 11th and 12th centuries. [[Patrick Leigh Fermor]] noted that the Maniots, isolated by mountains, were among the last Greeks to abandon the old religion, doing so towards the end of the 9th century: {{blockquote|Sealed off from outside influences by their mountains, the semi-[[rock-cut architecture|troglodytic]] Maniots themselves were the last of the Greeks to be converted. They only abandoned the old religion of Greece towards the end of the ninth century. It is surprising to remember that this peninsula of rock, so near the heart of the Levant from which Christianity springs, should have been baptised three whole centuries after the arrival of [[Augustine of Canterbury|St. Augustine]] in far-away [[Kent]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Leigh Fermor |first=Patrick |title=Mani: Travels in the Southern Peloponnese |year=1958 |publisher=John Murray |page=46}}</ref>}} According to [[Constantine VII]] in ''[[De Administrando Imperio]]'', the Maniots were referred to as 'Hellenes' and only fully [[Christianized]] in the 9th century, despite some church ruins from the 4th century indicating early Christian presence. The region's mountainous terrain allowed the Maniots to evade the Eastern Roman Empire's Christianization efforts, thus preserving pagan traditions, which coincided with significant years in the life of [[Gemistos Plethon]].

Another safe area for the pagans was the city of Harran which, Despite the persecution of its pagan inhabitants by Byzantine Emperor Maurice, remained a largely pagan city well into the early Islamic period. When the city was besieged by the armies of the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] in 639–640, it was the pagan community that negotiated its peaceful surrender. Under the subsequent rule of the caliphates, Harran became a major settlement within the [[Diyar Mudar]] region and retained a significant degree of autonomy. During the [[First Fitna]], the people of Harran sided with [[Mu'awiya I]] over [[Ali]] at the [[Battle of Siffin]] in 657, which allegedly resulted in a brutal retaliation by Ali, who massacred much of the population.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=17}}

Under the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750), Harran prospered and was selected as the capital by the last Umayyad caliph, [[Marwan II]], from 744 to 750. This move may have been influenced by the city's pagan sympathies and its strategic position near the empire's eastern provinces.{{Sfn|Bosworth|2003|pp=13–14}} The city's prominence under Umayyad rule saw it grow as a cultural and scholarly center, with the establishment of the first Muslim university in 717 under [[Umar II]], attracting scholars from across the Islamic world.{{Sfn|Frew|1999}}

Although Harran lost its capital status under the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], it continued to flourish, particularly during the reign of [[Harun al-Rashid]] (786–809), when its university became a key center for translation and intellectual activity.{{Sfn|Özdeniz|Bekleyen|Gönül|Gönül|1998|p=478}} The local religion, blending elements of Mesopotamian paganism and Neoplatonism, persisted into the 10th century, though periodic decrees enforced conversions to Islam, especially under [[Al-Ma'mun]] in 830.{{Sfn|Pingree|2002|p=23}} Nonetheless, Harran retained its heterogeneity, with a population that included Muslims, Christians, Jews, and a variety of other religious groups.

The medieval church accused sects deemed heretical such as the [[Waldensians]] and Cathars of participating in pagan fertility rites.<ref name="Byrne 2017 p. 626">{{cite book |last=Byrne |first=J.P. |title=The World of Renaissance Italy: A Daily Life Encyclopedia [2 volumes] |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4408-2960-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_kmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA626 |access-date=2023-05-14 |page=626}}</ref>

==== Islam in Arabia ====
{{See also|Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia}}
Arab paganism gradually disappeared during [[Muhammad]]'s era through [[Islamization]].<ref name="sealednectar2">{{citation |title=The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r_80rJHIaOMC&pg=PA245 |first=Saifur Rahman Al |last=Mubarakpuri |year=2005 |publisher=Darussalam Publications |isbn=978-9960-899-55-8 |pages=245–46}}</ref><ref name="online">Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nmUrN0B8cvQC&pg=PA139 Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 2 (Part 2): Al-Baqarah 142 to Al-Baqarah 252 2nd Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102164909/https://books.google.com/books?id=nmUrN0B8cvQC&pg=PA139 |date=2 January 2023 }}, p. 139, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, {{ISBN|1861796765}}. ([https://web.archive.org/web/20090529214150/http://www.fda.gov/fsrscripts/triggerParams.js online])</ref> The sacred months of the Arab pagans were the 1st, 7th, 11th, and 12th months of the Islamic calendar.<ref name="The Sealed Nectar Free Version">Mubarakpuri, [https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA129 The Sealed Nectar (Free Version)]{{dead link|date=May 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, p. 129</ref> After Muhammad had conquered [[Mecca]] he set out to convert the pagans.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite book |last=Sa'd |first=Ibn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dfnXAAAAMAAJ&q=Hatim |title=Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir, By Ibn Sa'd, Volume 2 |year=1967 |publisher=Pakistan Historical Society |asin=B0007JAWMK |page=380}}</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>{{citation |title=The Sealed Nectar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-ppPqzawIrIC&pg=PA269 |first=Saifur |last=Rahman al-Mubarakpuri |year=2005 |publisher=Darussalam Publications |page=269 |isbn=9798694145923}}</ref><ref name="Mufti Dec 2007 103">{{citation |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oiAtbfbHgVoC&pg=PA103 |first=M. Mukarram Ahmed |last=Mufti |year=2007 |publisher=Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd |isbn=978-81-261-2339-1 |page=103}}</ref> One of the last military campaigns that Muhammad ordered against the Arab pagans was the [[Demolition of Dhul Khalasa]]. It occurred in April and May 632 AD, in 10AH of the Islamic Calendar. [[Dhul Khalasa]] is referred to as both an idol and a temple, and it was known by some as the [[Ka'ba]] of Yemen, built and worshipped by polytheist tribes.<ref name=b3>{{cite book |title=Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHufEXRlR6EC&pg=PA297 |first=William |last=Robertson Smith |year=2010 |publisher=Forgotten Books |isbn=978-1-4400-8379-2 |page=297}}</ref><ref name=b2>{{cite book |title=Who Was Jesus?: Conspiracy in Jerusalem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yWzcsddrx_wC&pg=PA146 |first=Kamal |last=S. Salibi |year=2007 |publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks |isbn=978-1-84511-314-8 |page=146}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=When the Moon Split |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJL6gxPUV4EC&pg=PA296 |first=Saifur Rahman Al |last=Mubarakpuri |year=2002 |publisher=DarusSalam |isbn=978-9960-897-28-8 |page=296}}</ref>

=== Modern history ===
==== Early Modern Renaissance ====
[[File:Celebrazione del 2777 Natale di Roma - Pietas Comunità Gentile 2.jpg|thumb|Celebration of the 2777th [[Natale di Roma]] at the [[Circus Maximus]]]]
Interest in reviving [[ancient Roman]] religious traditions can be traced to the [[Renaissance]], with figures such as [[Gemistus Pletho]] and [[Julius Pomponius Laetus]] advocating for a revival,<ref name="marre" /> when [[Renaissance magic]] was practiced as a revival of [[Greco-Roman magic]]. Gemistus Plethon, who was from Mistras (near the [[Mani Peninsula]]—where paganism had endured until the 12th century) encouraged the Medici, descendants of the Maniot Latriani dynasty, to found the [[Platonic Academy (Florence)|Neoplatonic Academy]] in [[Florence]], helping to spark the [[Renaissance]].
In addition Julius Pomponius Laetus (student of Pletho) established the [[Roman academies|Roman academy]] which secretly celebrated the [[Natale di Roma]], a festival linked to the [[foundation of Rome]], and the birthday of [[Romulus]].<ref>Raphael Volaterranus, in his Commentaries presented to [[Julius II]], declared that the enthusiasms of these initiates were "the first step towards doing away with the Faith" (Pastor IV 1894:44).</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=La 'conguira' degli umanisti: Platina e Pomponio Leto |url=http://www.castelsantangelo.com/tl_3a.asp |work=Castel Sant'Angelo |publisher=castelsantangelo.com |access-date=25 November 2013 |location=Rome |language=Italian |archive-date=3 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203003347/http://www.castelsantangelo.com/tl_3a.asp |url-status=dead}}</ref> The Academy was dissolved in 1468 when [[Pope Paul II]]  ordered the arrest and execution of some of the members, [[Pope Sixtus IV]] allowed Laetus to open the academy again until the [[Sack of Rome (1527)|Sack of Rome]] in 1527.

After the [[French Revolution]], the French lawyer [[Gabriel André Aucler]] (mid 1700s–1815) adopted the name '''Quintus Nautius''' and sought to [[Modern paganism|revive paganism]], styling himself as its leader. He designed [[religious clothing]] and performed pagan rites at his home. In 1799, he published ''La Thréicie'', presenting his religious views. His teachings were later analyzed by [[Gérard de Nerval]] in ''[[Les Illuminés]]'' (1852).{{Sfn|Lamoureux|1843|p=397}}
Admiring [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome]], Aucler supported the [[French Revolution]] and saw it as a path to restoring an ancient republic.{{sfn|Gaume|1856|p=208}} He took the name Quintus Nautius, claimed Roman priestly lineage, and performed [[Orphic]] rites at his home.{{sfn|Gérardin|1974|p=226}} His followers were mainly his household.{{sfn|Lamoureux|1843|p=397}} In 1799, he published ''La Thréicie'', advocating a revival of paganism in France, condemning Christianity, and promoting [[Pythagoreanism|universal animation]].{{sfn|Merkin|2014a|p=257}}

In the 17th century, the description of paganism turned from a theological aspect to an [[ethnological]] one, and religions began to be understood as part of the [[ethnic]] identities of peoples, and the study of the religions of so-called primitive peoples triggered questions as to the ultimate historical [[origin of religion]]. [[Jean Bodin]] viewed pagan mythology as a distorted version of Christian truths.<ref name="Franklin 2017 p. 413">{{cite book |last=Franklin |first=J.H. |title=Jean Bodin |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-56179-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DkQrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA413 |access-date=2023-01-24 |page=413}}</ref> [[Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc]] saw the pagan [[religions of Africa]] of his day as relics that were in principle capable of shedding light on the historical paganism of Classical Antiquity.<ref>"It would be a great pleasure to make the comparison with what survives to us of ancient {{sic|hide=y|reason=Miller used lower case; verified with online copy found in search results.|paganism}} in our old books, in order to have better [grasped] their spirit." Peter N. Miller, "History of Religion Becomes Ethnology: Some Evidence from Peiresc's Africa" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' 67.4 (2006) 675–96.[http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_history_of_ideas/v067/67.4miller.html]</ref>

==== Late Modern Romanticism ====
The 19th century also saw much scholarly interest in the reconstruction of pagan mythology from folklore or fairy tales. This was notably attempted by the [[Brothers Grimm]], especially [[Jacob Grimm]] in his ''Teutonic Mythology'', and [[Elias Lönnrot]] with the compilation of the ''[[Kalevala]]''. The work of the Brothers Grimm influenced other collectors, both inspiring them to collect tales and leading them to similarly believe that the fairy tales of a country were particularly representative of it, to the neglect of cross-cultural influence. Among those influenced were the Russian [[Alexander Afanasyev]], the Norwegians [[Peter Christen Asbjørnsen]] and [[Jørgen Moe]], and the Englishman [[Joseph Jacobs]].<ref>Jack Zipes, ''The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: From Straparola and Basile to the Brothers Grimm'', p. 846, {{ISBN|0-393-97636-X}}</ref>

Romanticist interest in non-classical antiquity coincided with the rise of [[Romantic nationalism]] and the rise of the [[nation state]] in the context of the [[1848 revolutions]], leading to the creation of ''[[national epic]]s'' and [[national myth]]s for the various newly formed states. Pagan or folkloric topics were also common in the [[musical nationalism]] of the period. Paganism resurfaces as a topic of fascination in 18th to 19th-century [[Romanticism]], in particular in the context of the literary [[Celtic Revival|Celtic]], [[Slavic reconstructionism|Slavic]] and [[Viking Revival|Viking]] revivals, which portrayed historical [[Celtic polytheism|Celtic]], [[Slavic paganism|Slavic]] and [[Germanic polytheism|Germanic]] polytheists as [[noble savage]]s.{{rquote|right|Great God! I'd rather be<br />A Pagan suckled in a creed outworn;<br />So might I, standing on this pleasant lea,<br />Have glimpses that would make me less forlorn;<br />Have sight of [[Proteus]] rising from the sea;<br />Or hear old [[Triton (mythology)|Triton]] blow his wreathèd horn.|[[William Wordsworth]], "[[The World Is Too Much with Us]]", lines 9–14}}

In Italy, with the fall of the [[Papal States]] the process of [[Italian unification]] fostered [[anti-clerical]] sentiment among the intelligentsia. Intellectuals like archaeologist [[Giacomo Boni (archaeologist)|Giacomo Boni]] and writer [[Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo]] promoted the restoration of Roman religious practices.<ref name="giudice">{{cite journal |last=Giudice |first=Christian |year=2012 |url=https://www.academia.edu/9521300 |title=Pagan Rome was Rebuilt in a Play: Roggero Musmeci Ferrari Bravo and the Representation of Rumon |journal=The Pomegranate |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=212–232 |doi=10.1558/pome.v14i2.212 |issn=1743-1735}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Buscemi |first=Francesco |year=2019 |chapter=The Sin of Eating Meat: Fascism, Nazism and the Construction of Sacred Vegetarianism |editor1-last=Gentilcore |editor1-first=David |editor2-last=Smith |editor2-first=Matthew |title=Proteins, Pathologies and Politics: Dietary Innovation and Disease from the Nineteenth Century |location=London |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |page=144 |isbn=978-1-350-05686-2}}</ref> In 1927, philosopher and esotericist [[Julius Evola]] founded the [[Gruppo di Ur]] in Rome, along with its journal ''Ur'' (1927–1928), involving figures like [[Arturo Reghini]]. In 1928, Evola published ''[[Imperialismo Pagano]]'', advocating Italian political paganism to oppose the [[Lateran Pacts]]. The journal resumed in 1929 as ''Krur''.

A mysterious document published in ''Krur'' in 1929, attributed to orientalist [[Leone Caetani]], suggested that Italy's [[World War I]] victory and the rise of [[fascism]] were influenced by Etruscan-Roman rites.<ref>{{cite web |first=Sandro |last=Consolato |date=18 October 2017 |title=La Grande Guerra degli esoteristi |url=https://www.tempi.it/la-grande-guerra-degli-esoteristi/ |work=Tempi |language=it}}</ref>

=== Late 20th century ===
The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence in [[neo-Druidism]] as well as the rise of [[modern Germanic paganism]] in the United States and in [[Iceland]]. In the 1970s, [[Wicca]] was notably influenced by feminism, leading to the creation of an eclectic, [[Goddess]]-worshipping movement known as [[Dianic Wicca]].{{Sfn|Adler|2006|pp=178–239}} The 1979 publication of [[Margot Adler]]'s ''[[Drawing Down the Moon (book)|Drawing Down the Moon]]'' and [[Starhawk]]'s ''[[The Spiral Dance]]'' opened a new chapter in public awareness of paganism.{{sfn|Adler|2006|p=ix}} With the growth and spread of large, pagan gatherings and festivals in the 1980s, public varieties of [[Wicca]] continued to further diversify into additional, eclectic sub-denominations, often heavily influenced by the [[New Age]] and [[counter-culture]] movements. These open, unstructured or loosely structured traditions contrast with [[British Traditional Wicca]], which emphasizes secrecy and initiatory lineage.{{sfn|Adler|2006|pp=429–456}}

The public appeal for pre-Christian Roman spirituality in the years following [[fascism]] was largely driven by [[Julius Evola]]. By the late 1960s, a renewed "operational" interest in pagan Roman traditions emerged from youth circles around Evola, particularly concerning the experience of the ''Gruppo di Ur''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Giudice |first=Christian |title=Occultism and Traditionalism: Arturo Reghini and the Antimodern Reaction in Early Twentieth-Century Italy |publisher=[[University of Gothenburg]] |year=2016 |pages=19–20}}</ref> Evola's writings incorporated concepts from outside classical Roman religion, such as [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[sexual magic]], and private [[ritual nudity]]. This period saw the rise of the ''Gruppo dei Dioscuri'' in cities like Rome, Naples, and Messina, which published a series of four booklets, including titles such as ''L'Impeto della vera cultura'' and ''Rivoluzione Tradizionale e Sovversione'', before fading from public view.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Del Ponte |first=Renato |title=Studi su Evola e la Tradizione |publisher=Indipendente |year=1990 |language=it}}</ref> The Evolian journal ''Arthos'', founded in [[Genoa]] in 1972 by [[Renato del Ponte]], expressed significant interest in Roman religion. In 1984, the ''Gruppo Arx'' revived Messina's ''Dioscuri'' activities, and Reghini's ''Pythagorean Association'' briefly resurfaced in [[Calabria]] and [[Sicily]] from 1984 to 1988, publishing ''Yghìeia''.

Other publications include the Genoese ''Il Basilisco'' (1979–1989), which released several works on pagan studies, and ''Politica Romana'' (1994–2004), seen as a high-level Romano-pagan journal. One prominent figure was actor [[Roberto Corbiletto]], who died in a mysterious fire in 1999.The 1980s and 1990s also saw an increasing interest in serious academic research and [[Polytheistic reconstructionism|reconstructionist pagan]] traditions. The establishment and growth of the Internet in the 1990s brought rapid growth to these, and other pagan movements.{{Sfn|Adler|2006|pp=429–456}}

By the time of the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse]] of the former [[Soviet Union]] in 1991, [[freedom of religion]] was legally established across Russia and a number of other newly independent states, allowing for the growth in both Christian and non-Christian religions.{{sfn|Strmiska|2005|p=45}}